Agro-industrialisation: The globalisation and industrialisation of farming on a large scale. The characteristics of these farms include:
Large scale
Use of machinery
Often specialisation in one or a limited number of products (monoculture)
IT management systems
Intensive use of chemicals
Low labour inputs in comparison to outputs
Often owned by agrobusiness companies (many of which are TNCs)
Maybe vertically integrated with food processing companies.
Intensification: This basically means increasing the output of a farm by increasing the amount grown or reared per hectare (one hectare = 10,000m2).
Agro-industrialisation has happened and been able to happen for a number of reasons including:
Mechanisation: The increased use of machine power over manpower.
Growing Population (growing demand): The world's population now exceeds 7 billion people and this figure is growing and expected to peak at at least 9 billion. In addition as people become more developed their calorific intake increases. Both of these factors are increasing demand and necessitating the need for larger scale farming.
Land reclamation: Even though we can not increase the size of the planet that we live on, people have tried to increase the amount of land available to farming. This has involved deforestation and also land reclamation. Land reclamation is reclaiming land, usually from the water. In countries like the UK this has involved draining the fens in Cambridgeshire, Norfolk and Suffolk, in the Netherlands this has involved building a dyke and draining away the sea. In both circumstances, the land has been used for farming.
Increased use of Chemicals: Increasing the use of fertilisers has allowed previously infertile land to be farmed. It has also meant that farmers need to do less crop rotation and leave less fallow periods. The use of pesticides has meant that less crops are lost to disease and pests allowing crops to be grown more intensively.
Improved Irrigation: The greater use of irrigation (watering the ground) has allowed more areas to farmed for longer periods. This is especially true for very arid areas of the world like southern states in the US.
Improved Transport (refrigeration and air freight): Faster transport and improved transport has meant that agricultural products can now be traded around the world. This has increased the number and size of farms looking to make a profit out of trading with other countries.
Subsidies: Subsidies are financial inducements that reduce production costs make products cheaper and more competitive. The EU and countries like Japan and the US offer there farmers subsidies in order to increase production. The aim is to protect traditional industries and to aim for greater self sufficiency.
Farm size: Traditionally farms have been handed down through generations and often even divided between siblings. This process reduced the size of farms, making many of them unproductive. This practice still happens in many LEDCs where subsistence farming is common. However, as countries develop and move towards commercial farming, they either cooperate and share resources (land, equipment, etc.) or farms merge together making larger plots of land. Larger farms allow for greater use of machinery and increase intensification.
GM Crops: GM crops are genetically modified crops. This means that they have had their DNA altered through genetic engineering. Crops may have their DNA altered so that they grow faster, or grow bigger, or are more drought resistant, etc. GM crops are very controversial and have many critics as well as supporters. A summary of some of their many advantages and disadvantages is below.
ADVANTAGES OF GM CROPS
DISADVANTAGES OF GM CROPS
Crops can be designed to be disease resistant reducing the amount of pesticides needed
Crops can also be designed to grow in less fertile soil reducing the amount of fertilisers needed
The above mean that farming costs are reduced and that less chemical pollutants will be added to the atmosphere or water (reduced eutrophication)
Crops can be made drought resistant, so more land can be used for agriculture and less water will be used reducing water stress
Crops can be grown more intensively increasing supply and therefore reducing shortages.
If crops can be grown intensively then deforestation can be reduced.
Super foods can be developed that have very high nutritional value
Crops can be designed to last longer. This means there will be less waste because they don't perish and can increase choice around the world
If more crops are grown there will be greater photosynthesis reducing carbon dioxide levels
Crops can have their taste, colour, size, etc altered to make them taste better, easier to store, etc.
Some GM crops maybe poisonous to animals that naturally feed on them, disrupting food chains.
GM crops may cross-pollinate with natural varieties causing the loss of natural native species.
Because GM crops are more resistant they may become more dominant and cause natural varieties to decline in numbers
GM crops may be patented making them unaffordable to many countries that need the benefit of them
The development of GM crops may allow a limited number of TNC take a dominant position and exploit smaller producers
There may be an increase in allergic reactions and no one knows the long term health problems (or benefits?)
GM technology may be used to create food weapons (similar to the risk/fear of nuclear technology being used to make a dirty bomb).
Although agro-industrialisation has undoubtedly increased the world's agricultural output, reduced the cost of agricultural products and increased choice, it has also caused many problems. Some problems of agro-industrialisation include:
Overcultivation: The intensification of farming can lead to overcultivation. This basically means that too many crops are being grown in soil and it is not been given time to recover. If soil is overused then it will start to lose its fertility. This will either mean that it can be no longer used for agricultural purposes or that more fertilisers will have to be used. Once soil starts to lose its fertility it means that soil degradation is taking place. In an arid environment this might mean that desertification happens as well.
Overgrazing: This means farming too many cattle on a piece of land. The result of this is that all the vegetation is eaten. This reduces the stability of the soil making it more vulnerable to wind and water erosion. When this happens the soil becomes degraded and desertification can take place in arid environments.
Deforestation: To increase the number and size of farms, huge areas of forest are often cleared. This is a particular problem in countries like Brazil and Indonesia where areas of rainforest are being cleared to make way for cattle ranches and/or palm oil plantations.
Increase use of chemicals (eutrophication): In order to farm more intensively more chemical are often used. This can damage local biodiversity and disrupt food webs, it can cause air pollution and eutrophication. Eutrophication is caused by fertilisers running off into lakes and rivers causing excessive algae growth. The excessive growth stops water being oxygenated properly and prevents it from receiving sunlight.
Unsustainable Irrigation: Although irrigation can be very useful, it can also cause massive problems if it is done unsustainably. If more water is taken for irrigation than is being replaced then a number of problems may happen including; aquifer depletion, salinisation, saltwater intrusion and subsidence. A classic example of unsustainable irrigation in and around the Aral Sea. Here so much water has been taken from the two rivers that feed the Aral Sea, that the Aral Sea has stored to reduce in size and its salinity has increased (for more details see: Irrigation and agriculture).
Greenhouse effect: Cattle (cows and pigs) produce large amounts of methane. Methane is one of the worst greenhouse gases. Therefore if the amount of cattle is increased so will the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere increasing the greenhouse effect and global warming.
Transportation: Agro-industrilisation has led to an increase in agricultural products being transported around the world. Many perishable products (fruit and vegetables) are transported by air or in refrigerated containers, both of which release large amounts of greenhouse gases.
Disease: When you have a greater number of animals living in closer proximity there is a greater chance of disease spreading and being passed between species. Scrapies which started in sheep got passed to cattle (BSE) and then humans CJD. Other diseases which have spread quickly and been transmitted to humans include swine flu, bird flu and foot and mouth disease.
Animal cruelty: Industrial farming has been blamed for animal cruelty that takes place on some farms. This might include living in very cramped conditions (battery chickens), being forced fed (geese being reared to produce foie gras), being kept in dark conditions (cows being reared for veal), fed unnatural foods or transported over long distances.
To obtain the highest level in essays, it is necessary to use case studies. You can use some of the case studies e.g. Aral Sea and Dianchi Lake from earlier sections in the course: Water and change and Irrigation and agriculture.
Palm Oil
Palm oil is an edible plant oil derived from the palm tree. Palm oil is extracted from the pulp of the fruit and is naturally reddish in colour. Palm oil is used in a huge variety of products and has multiple functions. Common food products like chocolate, butter, cereals, pizza, bread and crisps can all contain palm oil. Cleaning products and make up products can also contain palm oil and it can obviously be used as a cooking oil as well as a biofuel.
Indonesia is the world's biggest producer of palm oil, followed by Malaysia. Between them they grow over 80% of the world's palm oil. Nigeria is the third biggest producer. Other tropical countries like Columbia, Thailand and the Ivory Coast also produce palm oil.
Despite its wide variety of uses, palm oil has many critics because of the environmental damage that growing it can cause. To make way for plantations large areas of rainforest are often cleared. This destroys the habitats of endangered species like the orangutan and tiger, as well as forcing indigenous groups off their land. Deforestation and drainage of peaty soils (beneath Malaysian and Indonesian rainforests) also releases large quantities of stored carbon, therefore enhancing the greenhouse effect still further. New transport and communication links into the rainforest can cause further disruption to habitats and pollution. Any form of agriculture and extraction can use chemicals and machinery which can lead to leaks causing air and water pollution. Obviously transporting palm oil all over the world can also cause pollution and contribute to the greenhouse effect and then their final burning if they are used as biofuels releases pollution. Palm oil has also been blamed on food shortages and rising food prices as more land is dedicated to biofuels rather than food crops.
RSPO: The roundtable on sustainable palm oil was established in 2004. Its aim is to promote the growth and use of sustainable palm oil products. The RSPO meets wants a year, their meetings include a variety of stakeholders, including; producers, processors, traders, manufacturers, traders, NGOs and investors. (http://www.rspo.org/)
Raw material: A material before it has been manufactured or processed into a finished item.
Biofuels: A fuel derived from organic matter. Biofuels are considered to be renewable because the organic matter that is used in biofuels can be replaced/regrown.
ADVANTAGES OF BIOFUELS
DISADVANTAGES OF BIOFUELS
Biofuels are a renewable form of energy, which means that they will not run out.
Biofuels can be produced cheaper than the cost of extracting oil, gas and coal, which means energy bills should be reduced
By using biofuels dependency on foreign sources of fossil fuels is reduced
Biofuels can be produced from numerous sources e.g. crops, animal waste, algae, etc.
Developing biofuels technology can create jobs in the local economy.
Biofuels have been shown to release less carbon emissions than fossil fuels
Biofuels are safe to handle and are not toxic
To make room for plantations large areas of rainforest are often deforested
Deforestation can lead to a loss in biodiversity.
The growing of crops for biofuels mean that less land is used for the growing of food crops which can lead to an increase in food prices and food shortages
Burning biofuels still releases greenhouse gases so contributes to the greenhouse effect
Biofuels have a lower energy output than traditional fuels so need greater inputs.
Developing technology and building facilities to burn biofuels is expensive
Large quantities of water are needed to produce and grow biofuels which may increase water stress
Food miles are defined as the distance food travels from where it is produced to where it is eaten. In many LEDCs people are subsistence farmers so only eat products that they have produced themselves. However, as countries develop people start expecting a greater variety of foods and they expect foods to be available all year. These changes in taste, coupled with the improvements in transport and refrigeration have drastically increased food miles.
It is possible to transport many food products by road, rail and ship as long as they have a long shelf life e.g. dry pasta, rice, tins, cereals, biscuits, wine, etc. However, it is necessary to transport perishable products like fruit and vegetables by air. Air is the most polluting form of transport and contributes significantly to the greenhouse effect. In the UK it is estimated that 1% of food is transported by air, but it accounts for over 11% of carbon emissions (http://www.soilassociation.org/).
However, some people say that it is far too simplistic just to look at the number of food miles when calculating the environmental impact of food. People argue that it is environmentally more sustainable to grow tomatoes in Spain than the UK because it is not necessary to heat greenhouses. It is also argued that it is better to grow rice in a tropical country like Vietnam than trying to grow it in the US. To look at a foods entire environmental impact from planting to eating is known as life cycle analysis.
Increased variety of food e.g. food like sugar, pineapples, grapes and coconuts that don't grow in the UK are available in UK supermarkets
Availability of food all year e.g. strawberries which only grow in the summer in the UK area available all year.
Increased market for farmers e.g. LEDC farmers and companies can sell their products to overseas markets
Reduced need for heating greenhouses in cold climates and irrigating in arid climates
Increased cultural diversity as different flavours and dishes become available
Decreased food prices through economies of scale
Loss of local fruit varieties and food stuffs e.g. there is over 7,500 types of apple, but most have been lost with varieties like granny smiths and golden delicious dominating the market place
Increased pollution from transporting food e.g. carbon emissions especially from air travel
Possible homogenisation off foodstuffs
Possible animal cruelty if live animals are transported e.g. cattle from Australia to Middle East
A concentration on food export might lead to food shortages in LEDCs
Small LEDC farms make get taken over by large agrobusinesses
Some Possible Solutions For Reducing Food Pollution
Organic Farming: Organic farming aims to minimise the use of chemicals during the production process. Reducing the use of chemicals reduces air and water pollution, damage to biodiversity and the process of eutrophication.
Market Gardening and Farmers Markets: Market gardening is small scale farming that often sells local/seasonal products straight to customers. Again farmers markets aim to sell local products to local consumers, therefore reducing food miles. Market gardening also aims to use more traditional farming techniques and relies on manpower.
Seasonal and Local: Encouraging people to eat more local products that are in season. This is the way people ate in the past and there have been campaigns to revive the fashion. The BBC actually produced a whole series to educate people about how to eat local/seasonal products.
Trading in virtual water: This is not the selling and buying of water, but the selling and buying of products that use a lot of water in their production. It makes a lot more environmental sense for a warm wet country to grow rice and then export, rather than an arid country having to irrigate large areas of land to grow it possibly increasing water stress.
Consumer Labelling: Informing customers about how and where products were made, may make them more environmentally aware and choose to buy products with lower carbon footprints. A lot of food is already required to put nutritional information on their products, so production information is just one step forward.
Domestic Subsidies: Subsidies are controversial and sometimes blamed for preventing LEDC farmers competing in the global market. However, if countries want to reduce air miles, there best way is to become self sufficient. The only way to do this might be to offer local producers subsidies.
Degradation through raw material production
Agro-industrialisation: The globalisation and industrialisation of farming on a large scale. The characteristics of these farms include:
Intensification: This basically means increasing the output of a farm by increasing the amount grown or reared per hectare (one hectare = 10,000m2).
Agro-industrialisation has happened and been able to happen for a number of reasons including:
Mechanisation: The increased use of machine power over manpower.
Growing Population (growing demand): The world's population now exceeds 7 billion people and this figure is growing and expected to peak at at least 9 billion. In addition as people become more developed their calorific intake increases. Both of these factors are increasing demand and necessitating the need for larger scale farming.
Land reclamation: Even though we can not increase the size of the planet that we live on, people have tried to increase the amount of land available to farming. This has involved deforestation and also land reclamation. Land reclamation is reclaiming land, usually from the water. In countries like the UK this has involved draining the fens in Cambridgeshire, Norfolk and Suffolk, in the Netherlands this has involved building a dyke and draining away the sea. In both circumstances, the land has been used for farming.
Increased use of Chemicals: Increasing the use of fertilisers has allowed previously infertile land to be farmed. It has also meant that farmers need to do less crop rotation and leave less fallow periods. The use of pesticides has meant that less crops are lost to disease and pests allowing crops to be grown more intensively.
Improved Irrigation: The greater use of irrigation (watering the ground) has allowed more areas to farmed for longer periods. This is especially true for very arid areas of the world like southern states in the US.
Improved Transport (refrigeration and air freight): Faster transport and improved transport has meant that agricultural products can now be traded around the world. This has increased the number and size of farms looking to make a profit out of trading with other countries.
Subsidies: Subsidies are financial inducements that reduce production costs make products cheaper and more competitive. The EU and countries like Japan and the US offer there farmers subsidies in order to increase production. The aim is to protect traditional industries and to aim for greater self sufficiency.
Farm size: Traditionally farms have been handed down through generations and often even divided between siblings. This process reduced the size of farms, making many of them unproductive. This practice still happens in many LEDCs where subsistence farming is common. However, as countries develop and move towards commercial farming, they either cooperate and share resources (land, equipment, etc.) or farms merge together making larger plots of land. Larger farms allow for greater use of machinery and increase intensification.
GM Crops: GM crops are genetically modified crops. This means that they have had their DNA altered through genetic engineering. Crops may have their DNA altered so that they grow faster, or grow bigger, or are more drought resistant, etc. GM crops are very controversial and have many critics as well as supporters. A summary of some of their many advantages and disadvantages is below.
ADVANTAGES OF GM CROPS
DISADVANTAGES OF GM CROPS
Overcultivation: The intensification of farming can lead to overcultivation. This basically means that too many crops are being grown in soil and it is not been given time to recover. If soil is overused then it will start to lose its fertility. This will either mean that it can be no longer used for agricultural purposes or that more fertilisers will have to be used. Once soil starts to lose its fertility it means that soil degradation is taking place. In an arid environment this might mean that desertification happens as well.
Overgrazing: This means farming too many cattle on a piece of land. The result of this is that all the vegetation is eaten. This reduces the stability of the soil making it more vulnerable to wind and water erosion. When this happens the soil becomes degraded and desertification can take place in arid environments.
Deforestation: To increase the number and size of farms, huge areas of forest are often cleared. This is a particular problem in countries like Brazil and Indonesia where areas of rainforest are being cleared to make way for cattle ranches and/or palm oil plantations.
Increase use of chemicals (eutrophication): In order to farm more intensively more chemical are often used. This can damage local biodiversity and disrupt food webs, it can cause air pollution and eutrophication. Eutrophication is caused by fertilisers running off into lakes and rivers causing excessive algae growth. The excessive growth stops water being oxygenated properly and prevents it from receiving sunlight.
Unsustainable Irrigation: Although irrigation can be very useful, it can also cause massive problems if it is done unsustainably. If more water is taken for irrigation than is being replaced then a number of problems may happen including; aquifer depletion, salinisation, saltwater intrusion and subsidence. A classic example of unsustainable irrigation in and around the Aral Sea. Here so much water has been taken from the two rivers that feed the Aral Sea, that the Aral Sea has stored to reduce in size and its salinity has increased (for more details see: Irrigation and agriculture).
Greenhouse effect: Cattle (cows and pigs) produce large amounts of methane. Methane is one of the worst greenhouse gases. Therefore if the amount of cattle is increased so will the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere increasing the greenhouse effect and global warming.
Transportation: Agro-industrilisation has led to an increase in agricultural products being transported around the world. Many perishable products (fruit and vegetables) are transported by air or in refrigerated containers, both of which release large amounts of greenhouse gases.
Disease: When you have a greater number of animals living in closer proximity there is a greater chance of disease spreading and being passed between species. Scrapies which started in sheep got passed to cattle (BSE) and then humans CJD. Other diseases which have spread quickly and been transmitted to humans include swine flu, bird flu and foot and mouth disease.
CJD and BSE: The Link - BBC article
Animal cruelty: Industrial farming has been blamed for animal cruelty that takes place on some farms. This might include living in very cramped conditions (battery chickens), being forced fed (geese being reared to produce foie gras), being kept in dark conditions (cows being reared for veal), fed unnatural foods or transported over long distances.
Battery Farm Eggs Banned By 2012 - BBC article
To obtain the highest level in essays, it is necessary to use case studies. You can use some of the case studies e.g. Aral Sea and Dianchi Lake from earlier sections in the course: Water and change and Irrigation and agriculture.
Palm Oil
Palm oil is an edible plant oil derived from the palm tree. Palm oil is extracted from the pulp of the fruit and is naturally reddish in colour. Palm oil is used in a huge variety of products and has multiple functions. Common food products like chocolate, butter, cereals, pizza, bread and crisps can all contain palm oil. Cleaning products and make up products can also contain palm oil and it can obviously be used as a cooking oil as well as a biofuel.
Indonesia is the world's biggest producer of palm oil, followed by Malaysia. Between them they grow over 80% of the world's palm oil. Nigeria is the third biggest producer. Other tropical countries like Columbia, Thailand and the Ivory Coast also produce palm oil.
Despite its wide variety of uses, palm oil has many critics because of the environmental damage that growing it can cause. To make way for plantations large areas of rainforest are often cleared. This destroys the habitats of endangered species like the orangutan and tiger, as well as forcing indigenous groups off their land. Deforestation and drainage of peaty soils (beneath Malaysian and Indonesian rainforests) also releases large quantities of stored carbon, therefore enhancing the greenhouse effect still further. New transport and communication links into the rainforest can cause further disruption to habitats and pollution. Any form of agriculture and extraction can use chemicals and machinery which can lead to leaks causing air and water pollution. Obviously transporting palm oil all over the world can also cause pollution and contribute to the greenhouse effect and then their final burning if they are used as biofuels releases pollution. Palm oil has also been blamed on food shortages and rising food prices as more land is dedicated to biofuels rather than food crops.
RSPO: The roundtable on sustainable palm oil was established in 2004. Its aim is to promote the growth and use of sustainable palm oil products. The RSPO meets wants a year, their meetings include a variety of stakeholders, including; producers, processors, traders, manufacturers, traders, NGOs and investors. (http://www.rspo.org/)
Losing Land to Palm Oil in Kalimantan - BBC article
Palm Oil - Greenpeace
Orangutan survival and the shopping trolley - BBC article
Raw material: A material before it has been manufactured or processed into a finished item.
Biofuels: A fuel derived from organic matter. Biofuels are considered to be renewable because the organic matter that is used in biofuels can be replaced/regrown.
ADVANTAGES OF BIOFUELS
DISADVANTAGES OF BIOFUELS
Biofuels: Green Energy or Grim Reaper - BBC article
Biofuels Falling Short on UK Environmental Standards - BBC article
Biofuels Targets Are Unethical Says Nuffield Report - BBC article
EU Biofuels need to be certified for sustainability - BBC article
Food Miles
Food miles are defined as the distance food travels from where it is produced to where it is eaten. In many LEDCs people are subsistence farmers so only eat products that they have produced themselves. However, as countries develop people start expecting a greater variety of foods and they expect foods to be available all year. These changes in taste, coupled with the improvements in transport and refrigeration have drastically increased food miles.
It is possible to transport many food products by road, rail and ship as long as they have a long shelf life e.g. dry pasta, rice, tins, cereals, biscuits, wine, etc. However, it is necessary to transport perishable products like fruit and vegetables by air. Air is the most polluting form of transport and contributes significantly to the greenhouse effect. In the UK it is estimated that 1% of food is transported by air, but it accounts for over 11% of carbon emissions (http://www.soilassociation.org/).
However, some people say that it is far too simplistic just to look at the number of food miles when calculating the environmental impact of food. People argue that it is environmentally more sustainable to grow tomatoes in Spain than the UK because it is not necessary to heat greenhouses. It is also argued that it is better to grow rice in a tropical country like Vietnam than trying to grow it in the US. To look at a foods entire environmental impact from planting to eating is known as life cycle analysis.
POSITIVES OF INCREASING FOOD MILES
NEGATIVES OF INCREASING FOOD MILES
90,000 Miles! The Astonishing Distance your Christmas dinner travels to your plate - Daily Mail Article
Food Miles: Don't go the Distance - BBC article
Food Miles: Does Distance Matter - Independent article
Do Food Miles Make A Difference To Global Warming - Reuters
Some Possible Solutions For Reducing Food Pollution
Organic Farming: Organic farming aims to minimise the use of chemicals during the production process. Reducing the use of chemicals reduces air and water pollution, damage to biodiversity and the process of eutrophication.
Market Gardening and Farmers Markets: Market gardening is small scale farming that often sells local/seasonal products straight to customers. Again farmers markets aim to sell local products to local consumers, therefore reducing food miles. Market gardening also aims to use more traditional farming techniques and relies on manpower.
London Farmers Markets and City Farms Gain Popularity - BBC article
Seasonal and Local: Encouraging people to eat more local products that are in season. This is the way people ate in the past and there have been campaigns to revive the fashion. The BBC actually produced a whole series to educate people about how to eat local/seasonal products.
Forgotten Foods: Getting them back on the table - BBC article
Seasons - BBC Food
Trading in virtual water: This is not the selling and buying of water, but the selling and buying of products that use a lot of water in their production. It makes a lot more environmental sense for a warm wet country to grow rice and then export, rather than an arid country having to irrigate large areas of land to grow it possibly increasing water stress.
Consumer Labelling: Informing customers about how and where products were made, may make them more environmentally aware and choose to buy products with lower carbon footprints. A lot of food is already required to put nutritional information on their products, so production information is just one step forward.
EU Wants Clearer Food Labelling - BBC article
Domestic Subsidies: Subsidies are controversial and sometimes blamed for preventing LEDC farmers competing in the global market. However, if countries want to reduce air miles, there best way is to become self sufficient. The only way to do this might be to offer local producers subsidies.