1.2 Settlement
Candidates should be able to:
• Describe the patterns of rural settlements – dispersed, linear, nucleated.
• Explain how physical factors (relief, soil, water supply) and other factors such as accessibility, agricultural land-use, influence the sites and patterns of rural settlements.
• Describe and explain the factors which may influence the size, growth and functions of rural and urban settlements.
• Describe and suggest reasons for the hierarchy of settlements and services.
• Describe and explain the land-use zones of towns and cities to include the Central Business District (CBD), residential areas, industrial areas, the provision of open spaces and transport routes. Differences in the patterns of urban structures in cities of LEDCs and MEDCs should be identified.
• Describe problems associated with the growth of urban areas such as congestion in the CBD, housing shortages, traffic congestion, squatter settlements. Suggested solutions to overcome these problems should be illustrated by reference to selected examples.
• Describe the effects of urbanisation on the environment – pollution (air, water, visual and noise), the results of urban sprawl on surrounding areas, the growth of out-of-town urban activities – shopping areas, sports facilities, etc. Settlement: A place where people live. A settlement can range from one an isolated building to a capital city of over 20 million people (e.g. Mexico City).
Site: The actual location or place that a settlement is built.
Situation: The area surrounding the site of a settlement. For example you might talk about if the settlement is near a river, or near the coast or in a valley surrounded by mountains.
When discussing settlements, we will often divide them into rural and urban settlements. We also often talk about settlements found in MEDCs and LEDCs.
Urban: The built up area, any city with a population of 10,000 people or more.
Rural: Basically the countryside (everywhere outside urban areas). Rural areas maybe farmland, forest, desert or savanna depending on where you are in the world. Rural areas do contain small settlements of less than 10,000 people e.g. hamlets and villages.
MEDC: More economically developed country. Basically a richer country e.g. US, Japan or UK
LEDC: Less economically developed country. Basically a poorer country e.g. Honduras, Uganda or Bangladesh
There are many different types of settlement, but these can roughly be divided into rural and urban settlements.
Rural Settlements: Settlements that are found in the countryside (rural areas) and contain less than 10,000 residents.
Urban Settlements: Settlements that contain more than 10,000 residents.
Isolated Building: A single building. An isolated building is normally a farm. Hamlet: A small group of houses, normally about 5 to 10. There is often no services in a hamlet. Village: A settlement of up to 10,000 people. Villages will have some services in them like small shops, a primary school, a doctors surgery, bus routes.
Town: A settlement of over 10,000 people that has not be designated a city. City: A large town, in the UK a town becomes a city when it has a cathedral in it. Capital City: The main administrative centre within a country and the home of the national government. Primate City: The largest and most important city within a country. The primate city will often have double the population of the next most important city. Most of the time the primate city is also the capital city, but there are some famous exceptions e.g. New York, Sydney and Sao Paolo. Conurbation: Two or more towns or cities that have joined to together e.g. Birmingham, Walsall, Dudley and Wolverhampton in England. Megaopolis: A conurbation or a clustering of cities with a population of over 10 million people e.g. Tokyo.
Choosing the Location of a Settlement
When the sites of settlement were first chosen, settlers would mainly have looked for natural advantages. These may have included:
Water supply: Water is essential when building a settlement. You need water to drink, to wash, to water crops and to cook. Water also contains fish that can be eaten and it can be used as a transport route. Fertile land: All settlements need food so it is important to build need fertile soil, where it is possible to grow crops. If a settlement grows a surplus of food then they might be able to trade with neighbouring settlements. Flat land (relief): It is a lot easier to build a settlement on flat land than in mountains. Defensive position: When sites for settlements were first chosen (hundreds or thousands of years ago), battles between settlements would have been common, therefore a good defensive location (on a small hill or surrounded by water) would have been very important. Building materials: Most houses would have traditionally been made out of woods, reeds, etc. Therefore it would have been very important to have been located near a source of building materials. Transport links: There wouldn't have been roads and railways when the sites of settlements were initially selected. However, access to rivers, the sea or valleys would have been very important. If the settlement was built next to a river, a site that allowed easy access across the river would have been chosen. Fuel: Settlements would not have had electricity or gas so a location next to a reliable source of fuel would be essential. The fuel source would normally be wood, or possibly peat. Weather: Sites with fairly stable weather will have been selected. You do not want some where too hot or too cold, too wet, too dry or too windy. To grow crops sun and rain would have been very important. Trading Location: Settlements may have also been built for their access to trading routes. It would be very hard for one settlement to be totally self-sufficient so trade was essential. Coastal areas often make good locations to trade from. Resources: It is useful being near resources like wood, coal, gold because you can use them to build things or trade with nearby settlements.
Settlement Patterns
Rural settlements can develop in many different ways giving them a unique shape (morphology). The five main settlement patterns that you need to be able to recognise.
Isolated: Singly buildings on their own. These will normally be found in mountainous areas and will normally be the farmhouse of a large farm.
Dispersed: When individual buildings are separated by several hundred meetings. They are individual isolated buildings and do not form a single settlement.
Loose knit: When houses are built near each other and are obviously in the same settlement, but there is spaces between them.
Linear or Ribbon: This is a settlement that has grown in a line. The line doesn't have to be straight, but will normally follow a road, a river, the coast or the valley floor.
Nucleated: When all the houses in a settlement are built very close together, often around a central village green or church.
CAUSES OF SETTLEMENT DISPERSION
CAUSES OF SETTLEMENT NUCLEATION
Mountainous areas that are hard to build on and hard to build good transport links to.
Severe weather conditions e.g. extremely hot or cold or wet.
Mainly farm land
Floodplain or coastal area that is vulnerable to flooding
Only limited natural resources
No job prospects
No nearby schools and hospitals
No electricity supply
No entertainment
Good transport links (road, rail, river)
Good fertile land nearby to grow food.
Flat land, that is easy to build on
Stable weather that is good for growing.
Nearby natural resources e.g. fuel
Good job prospects
Good schools and hospitals
Good and reliable supply of electricity, gas and water.
Varied entertainment
Note that the reasons above are a mixture of human and physical factors.
Settlement Growth (Functions)
Function: The job, purpose or use of a settlement. Large settlements will have more than one function and these functions may change over time. Functions may include:
Shopping (Retail)
Business (Commercial)
Farming (Agricultural)
Housing (Residential)
Educational
Healthcare
Administration (local or national government)
Fishing
Tourism
Entertainment
Sporting
Rural Areas: Rural areas tend to have a lot less functions than urban areas. The main purpose of settlements in rural areas is normally agriculture (farming) and possibly tourism. This is because rural areas have less people, poorer transport, poorer communication, less technology and the land is better used for other purposes i.e. agriculture.
Urban Areas: Urban areas tend to have a lot more functions ranging from shopping functions, to educational functions, to transport functions, to administrative functions and residential functions. The bigger the urban area, the more functions that it normally has.
Changing Functions
Settlements will grow if their functions are being successful and in demand. Alternatively if a settlements functions fall out of demand or if the resource their function relies on runs out, then the settlement may see economic and population decline.
With the birth of package holidays to the Mediterranean many British holiday resorts saw a rapid decline in the demand for their tourist functions (hotels, piers, etc.). Also many mining settlements in the UK saw a rapid decline when coal ran out or overseas coal became cheaper. However, other settlements like Dubai in the UAE saw rapid growth as it promoted itself as an all year holiday destination. Some settlements try and change their functions if one function declines. For example as Liverpool in the UK has seen a decline in its industry and port it has tried to promote its cultural, sporting, leisure and shopping functions.
Settlements can grow because of their function. San Salvador's most important function is probably business (commerce). San Salvador and its main function have both grown because of a number of human and physical factors. These include:
Physical Factors for the growth of San Salvador and its main Function (Business)
Human Factors for the growth of San Salvador and its main Function (Business)
Flat Land: Compared to most of El Salvador, the area around San Salvador is relatively flat making it easier to build offices and associated facilities.
Climate: Again compared to many other areas in El Salvador, the slightly higher climate of San Salvador makes the climate slightly cooler making the working environment more bearable.
Site: San Salvador is located in the middle of El Salvador. This makes it easy for businesses to trade through San Salvador and the neighbouring countries of Honduras and Guatemala.
Coast: San Salvador is only 40 minutes from the coast (La Libertad), so it is possible for businesses to trade by sea.
Transport: The Pan-American highway runs through San Salvador making trade with the rest of San Salvador and Central America easier. Also El Salvador's only international airport is located just outside San Salvador.
Education: San Salvador is home to the best international schools and universities. This means that there are trained and skilled workers to work in business, but also facilities to carry out research.
Communications: San Salvador has the best internet connections and mobile phone network making it easier for businesses to communicate with customers and suppliers.
Market: San Salvador is the biggest settlement in EL Salvador, so businesses have a large market to sell their products to.
Workforce: Again because San Salvador has the largest population of any settlement in El Salvador there is a large supply of workers (both manual and professional).
Capital: San Salvador is home to the country's main banks, so it is easier for companies to raise capital to invest in their businesses.
Settlement Hierarchy and Services
Hierarchy: Placing things in an order of importance.
Sphere of Influence: The distance or area people travel from to access a service i.e. the area served by a settlement or service.
Services: Facilities that are offered to people e.g. supermarket, cinema, school or train station. Services have a threshold population, which helps explain why bigger settlements have more services.
Range: This usually refers to the number of different services e.g. a school, a post office, etc. It can also refer to the distance people travel to access a service or settlement.
Threshold Population: The minimum amount of people required for a service to be offered and remain open.
High Order Goods (Comparison): Goods that people buy less frequently. They tend to be more expensive and people will normally compare quality and price before purchasing e.g. a TV, car or holiday.
Low Order Goods (Convenience): Goods that people buy every day. They don't usually cost much money and people would not normally travel far to buy them e.g. bread and milk.
Hierarchy
The hierarchy of a settlement normally depends on three variables:
The size of population
The range and number of services
The sphere of influence
Obviously these three variables are very much interconnected. For services to be offered there has to be a minimum threshold population. When services are then offered more people are attracted. As more people are attracted more services are offered and the sphere of influence increases.
As you move down the settlement hierarchy the number of settlements increase. For example you only get one capital city (near the top of the hierarchy) in each country, but you get thousands of isolated buildings (farms - near the bottom of the hierarchy) in every country.
Land Uses and Land Use Models
CBD: The Central Business District. This the area in the middle of urban areas where there tends to be a concentration of retail and commercial land uses.
Transition zone: The area between the CBD and the largely residential suburbs. Traditionally this used to be an area of industry, but as industry has relocated these areas are being regenerated into mixed land use areas including houses, shops and entertainment.
Suburbs: The ares near the edge of the urban area that has a concentration of residential land use. There will also be some recreational land use within the suburbs and possibly some retail and educational.
Rural-urban fringe: This is the boundary between the urban area and the rural area (countryside). This area is demand by multiple land users e.g. agriculture, recreational, residential, retail, industrial. The large demand can often lead to conflict.
Commuter belt or Commuter villages (dormitory villages): Areas of residential land use where people travel from to their work place. People might access services near their place of work so commuter villages are often devoid of any other land uses or services.
Greenfield Site: Land that has never been built on before, greenfield sites will often be used for agriculture. Many countries are trying to restrict the amount of building on greenfield sites and encouraging building on brownfield sites.
Brownfield Site: This is land that has been built on previously but has been left abandoned and often become derelict. Most commonly brownfield sites are former factories found in the transition zone.
Derelict: Land that has been abandoned (no longer used) and often become run down or vandalised. Derelict sites is a sign of disinvestment (companies and people leaving an area).
Greenbelt: Greenbelts are protected areas of land around large urban areas. They have been used by the UK government to try and protect greenfield sites and promote building on brownfield sites.
Housing Density: The number of houses per km2.
Urban Sprawl or Urban Growth: The spread or growth of an urban area into the rural-urban fringe.
Main Land Uses
Commercial: This is businesses, mainly offices. The main commercial area will normally be in the CBD.
Residential: This is housing and is where people live. Apartment type housing is found near the CBD and bigger houses towards the suburbs.
Industrial: This is factories, traditionally found in the transition zone, they are now more likely to be found in the rural-urban fringe.
Agricultural: This farming and is obviously normally found in rural areas although some cities may have some small urban farms.
Recreational: Any activity that people do in their spare time. This land use may include golf courses, football pitches, museums, sports centres and tennis courts.
Retail: This is shops. Traditionally the main shopping areas have been in the CBD but increasingly shops have been relocating to shopping malls in the rural-urban fringe.
Educational: Any building connected to education e.g. libraries, schools and universities. This land use may be found anywhere in urban areas.
Land can be obviously used for virtually any use, but above are the most common.
Land Use Models
A model is a simplification of reality. Models only show generalisations so near area may be exactly the same as the model. You need to know about two land use models based on MEDCs.
Burgess Model (concentric circle model)
The Burgess Model was developed in 1925 by the sociologist Ernest Burgess. He based it solely on the US city of Chicago. He noticed a distinctive commercial area in the centre of the city and called this the CBD. He then noticed an area of factories which he called the transition zone followed by steadily improving housing as you moved away from the transition zone.
The model is very simplistic, only based on one city and now largely out of date as periods of deindustrialisation and regeneration have changed many urban land use.
Hoyt Model
The Hoyt Model was developed in 1939 by the economist Homer Hoyt. Hoyt based his model on 142 North American cities. Like Burgess he noticed a largely commercial area in the centre of the urban areas (the CBD). However, unlike Burgess' circles he noticed the development of wedges. He noticed that industry often developed along major transport routes e.g. railways, canals and roads.
He then noticed that the poorer residential areas were focused near the industry while richer residential areas tended to grow further away from polluting industrial areas.
Again there are some limitations because Hoyt only looked at North American cities in a period before mass car ownership. Also like with Burgess' model many changes have since taken place in MEDC cities.
The Rural-Urban Fringe
Rural-urban fringe: The boundary between the urban area (towns and cities) and the rural area (countryside).
Because so many people want to work and live in the rural-urban fringe, different groups frequently come into conflict over how to use it. Groups that may come into conflict include:
House developers
House buyers
Farmers
Hikers and cyclists
Road builders
Factories
Supermarkets
Business or science parks
For example farmers and industry will probably disagree over many things. Industry might want to build on farmers land, farmers maybe worried about pollution disturbing crops and animals and both might be worried about each others transport. You can complete the conflict matrix below to look for other possible conflicts.
Council Housing: This is government housing which is usually given to people that are unemployed and have a low income. The rent on council houses are lower than the rent on private property.
Detached Housing: A single house that is not attached to any other house. A detached house will normally have a garden and a drive. These types of houses are normally found in the suburbs.
Semi-Detached Housing: Two houses that are joined together. They will probably have individual gardens and drives. These types of houses are normally found in the suburbs.
Terraced Housing: A long line of attached houses. These are typical in old industrial cities of the UK. They are normally found in the transition zone area and they would have been housing for people working in the factories. They were very basic houses, often with no electricity and an outside toilet. Many have now been knocked down or improved.
Bungalow: This is a house with only one floor. They are very popular amongst old people who find it hard to use stairs. Bungalows can be detached or semi-detached. They are normally found in the suburbs.
Flats or Apartments: These are buildings with multiple levels. Normally a flat or apartment will only be on one floor within the block of flats or the apartment building.
Tenure: This means who owns the house. Houses can be owner occupied, which means the people living their own it, council houses which means the government own its, privately rented, which means a private landlord (owner) owns it, or owned by a private organisation (housing association) and rented privately.
Even though the UK population is fairly stable the demand for houses has increased. The reasons for this include:
Family sizes are now smaller, so the average number of people per house is lower
There are more divorces and single people so more houses are needed
People tend to leave home younger so need their own houses
Many migrants are single and need there own house
People are getting married later, so need there own house for longer.
A lot of old houses are considered to be uninhabitable (no bathroom, etc.)
Old people are choosing to live on their own instead of moving to their family or moving into a care home.
Controlling Growth in the Rural-Urban Fringe
Because of urban sprawl and because the loss of greenfield sites is such a big problem, many suggestions have been given to solve the problem, including:
Greenbelts: A greenbelt is an area of land around urban areas that is protected from development. Greenbelts were first started in the UK in the 1930's and now there are 14 greenbelts around all major urban areas. The idea is to stop greenfield sites being built on and alternative like brownfield sites being used.
Urban Wedges: Some planners have suggested that urban growth should be allowed to take place in wedges (a bit like the wedges in the Hoyt Model). By building in wedges from the CBD it will ensure that some greens areas are protected near the CBD and throughout the city. This time of planning has been used in several Danish cities.
Brownfield Sites: The UK government has set targets for the use of brownfield sites. They want over 60% of new houses to be built on them, therefore protecting rural areas. However, many brownfield sites are heavily polluted, increasing the cost of construction and there are shortages of brownfield sites in areas where demand for houses is greatest. For example the south east of the UK where demand is high there is a shortage of brownfield sites.
Housing Density: Another proposition is to increase the housing density of all future housing developments. The UK government encourages all developments to have between 30 and 50 houses per hectare (10000m2). By doing this less land will be destroyed.
Below is an interesting article about development on brownfield sites in the rural-urban fringe. A group of about 400 travellers are being evicted because they did not get the proper planning permission to build on land that they own.
The land has never been used before so is not polluted
Greenfield sites are often near the rural-urban fringe where transport links are good
There is often less congestion near the rural-urban fringe
You can normally choose the size of your site and ensure that there is room to expand.
Developers will find it easier selling houses, offices, etc. near the rural-urban fringe because this is where the demand is.
The land is often cheap to buy because it has been used before
Many brownfield sites are located near the CBD.
Government policy is to build more on brownfield sites.
People are more likely to be able to access the site by public transport because it is near the CBD
DISADVANTAGES
You may come into conflict with other land users
Many greenfield sites are now protected by the government
The sites might be less accessible by public transport
There maybe public protests when trying to build on greenfield sites.
The land is often polluted so it is expensive to clean-up
Brownfield sites are not always located where you want them
Brownfield sites don't always have room to expand
Brownfield sites are not always the shape that you want them to be.
Types of Housing In El Salvador
Within a city it possible to find very different housing very close together. Contrasts are often greatest in developing cities where there is a big financial gap between the rich and the poor. One example of a city with these contrasts is San Salvador, the capital of El Salvador. Here you have people living in informal housing living only hundreds of metres from people living in large luxury detached houses.
Santa Elena is an area of San Salvador. It is a wealthy area and is where the US Embassy is located. Below are characteristics of the houses and the area:
Large houses made out of permanent material e.g. brick
Large gardens and private drive/garage
Modern amenities e.g. indoor toilet, running water and mains electricity
Well maintained, freshly painted, new windows, doors, etc.
Many contain luxury features like swimming pools, air con and games rooms
Permanent tarmac roads - many roads are gated and guarded
Many local facilities like restaurants, hotels and supermarkets
On the other hand just a few hundred metres down the road in between the Pan-American highway you find informal housing locally known as ''champas". The informal housing here is on marginal land, it is near a polluted river and squashed between the country's busiest road. The characteristics of the houses and area here is very different:
Housing is temporary and made out of scrap material e.g. plastic, corrugated steel and wood
Houses are small, often only one room where the whole family lives and sleeps
No inside toilet, no running water. Open sewers and open fires both cause health risks
No proper roads, just tracks. This makes rubbish collection very hard
Land is marginal and vulnerable to hazards like landslides and flooding
Limited local facilities, except maybe some small tiendas (small shops)
Tend to have high crime rates, high unemployment and extreme poverty
Changing Location of Retail Land Use
Traditionally most main shopping areas have been concentrated in the CBD. However, in recent decades there has been a trend of shopping areas moving to the rural-urban fringe. Below are some of the reasons why they have moved.
CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT (CBD)
RURAL-URBAN FRINGE
ADVANTAGES
Most public transport links (trains, subways and buses) tend to head towards CBDs
There are many nice buildings in the CBD, giving the area much more character.
There are often other associated services that you can visit at the same time e.g. banks, restaurants, post offices or even libraries.
There is plenty of land in the rural-urban fringe so shopping centres are able to expand
Because of the availability of land (often flat and easy to build on) rents are normally cheaper.
The extra land allows shopping centres to build more car parking spaces.
There are often main roads near the rural-urban fringe so it is easy to access the shopping centres in cars.
It is possible to make the shopping centres very large and put them all under one roof, eliminating any issues of bad weather
It is easier for the shopping centres to receive deliveries.
DISADVANTAGES
There is often a shortage of space, so shops and shopping centres are unable to expand.
Because of the shortage of space, land is very expensive, making shop rents very high.
Roads leading to the CBD are often small and not designed for cars.
There is limited parking in the CBD.
Some CBDs have a lot of derelict buildings and high crime rates which scares potential customers visiting the area.
Because of the small roads, deliveries may be hard and delayed
Customers without cars may find it hard to access shopping malls in the rural-urban fringe. However, some will develop public transport links (buses and even trains).
It can cause environmental damage as greenfield sites are destroyed in the rural-urban fringe.
Although the new shopping centre may create new jobs, other jobs may be lost in the CBD as other shopping areas are forced to go out of business.
It encourages greater use of the car, furthering congestion and pollution
ADVANTAGES TO LOCAL RESIDENTS IN RURAL-URBAN FRINGE
DISADVANTAGES TO LOCAL RESIDENTS IN RURAL-URBAN FRINGE
New public transport links may be developed
There will be new facilities that local residents can access and use
Local residents may get jobs in the new shopping centre.
The shopping centre may pull more people into the area and may benefit existing services, possibly owned by local residents (positive multiplier effect).
There will be an increase in congestion as more people travel to shopping centre by car.
The shopping centres may create noise, air and visual pollution all affecting local residents (negative externality)
Shopping centres may destroy greenfield sites that have previously been used and enjoyed by local residents.
MetroCentre (Gateshead) Case Study
The MetroCentre is a large shopping centre on the A1 (large road) on the edge of Gateshead (near Newcastle). MetroCentre has about 1.3 million people living within about 30 minutes. It was built by the businessman Sir John Hall and opened in 1986. He later sold it to Capital Shopping Centre in 1995 for about $500 million.
The site of the shopping centre was chosen because it was relatively cheap (previously it was marshland), fairly flat, had room for future expansion and was a designated enterprise zone. This meant that planning controls were more relaxed and it was exempt from property tax.
MetroCentre has very good transport links. Most people arrive via car on the A1 and use any of the 10,000 car parking spaces. However, it is also possible to reach the shopping centre via bus and metro.
The shopping centre has over 300 shops and 40 restaurants. Other facilities include a 12 screen cinema, 18 lane bowling alley and 150 room hotel.
Although the MetroCentre has created numerous jobs and provided facilities for local people it has also be blamed for increased traffic, pollution and the decline of Newcastle CBD. Later we will look at how Newcastle is fighting back.
Urban Problems
Urbanisation: The increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas. Although this can be caused by natural increase (higher birth rates in urban areas than rural areas), it is more likely to happen because of rural-urban migration.
Urban growth or Sprawl: A growth in the size of the urban area. This normally happens because of building in the rural-urban fringe, although it may also include things like land reclamation.
Rapid urbanisation and urban growth can cause many problems in urban areas including:
Congestion (an increase in the amount of traffic leading to traffic jams)
Destruction of greenfield sites
Pollutions (air, water, noise, visual)
Electricity blackouts
Water shortages
Unemployment
Homelessness
Growth of informal settlements
Crime
Spiral of Decline
Often one urban problem can lead to many other urban problems. This is often called the spiral of decline or also the negative multiplier effect. For example the diagram to the right shows how deindustrialisation (closure of factories and movement overseas) led to unemployment. Once you have unemployment local residents have less money. They do not spend money in local shops or on local facilities. They also invest less in their houses. Local businesses start to close or move to new locations (disinvestment). The local government starts to collect less money in tax while having to pay more unemployment benefit.
As local shops and facilities either close or move elsewhere unemployment rises still further. Some people will start to move causing depopulation. This out migration leaves behind abandoned businesses and houses which are often vandalised and become derelict.
Remaining residents take less care of their houses and the local government has less money to spend on roads, schools and hospitals. Education levels fall and so does residents health leading to more sickness and days missed from work.
This decline can continue on indefinitely until some intervention, usually by the government trying to regenerate and improve and area. Later we will look at the London Docklands and how it is being regenerated after decades of decline.
Congestion (London Case Study)
Probably one of the most common problems is congestion. The problem of congestion is caused by multiple factors, including:
Increase in car ownership
Limited amount of public transport or expensive public transport or overcrowded public transport
Roads not designed for cars, but rather horses and people.
Population growth and rural-urban migration
The movement of freight (containers) onto lorries
The problems caused by congestion can be divided into social, environmental and economic problems.
SOCIAL PROBLEMS CAUSED BY CONGESTION
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS CAUSED BY CONGESTION
ECONOMIC PROBLEMS CAUSED BY CONGESTION
As car ownership increases so does the amount of pollutants released by cars. This can lead increased chest problems e.g. asthma.
People travelling to work have to leave home earlier and arrive back later, therefore spending longer away from their families.
More cars on the roads increases the frequency of accidents
More traffic jams can increase the frequency of road rage.
More vehicles on the roads increase the amount of air pollution, but also noise pollution.
Increased car ownership has increased road building which often leads to the destruction of greenfield sites.
The air pollution can contribute to acid rain and the greenhouse effect
Building new roads is very expensive, especially when private property is purchased, thus cost the government money.
Late deliveries caused by traffic jams costs companies and the economy money.
Workers also arrive late to work because they are stuck in traffic.
It creates a reliance on oil and more oil is used at slow speed than normal travelling speeds
London in the UK has tried a number of different things to reduce the problems of congestion. They include:
Congestion charge: Drivers are now charged to drive into the centre of London. The charge is about $15 a day. The idea is to encourage people from cars and onto public transport.
Barclays bike hire and bike lanes and work showers: The is now a bike hire scheme in London sponsored by the bank Barclays. People can now borrow bikes for a short period at minimal cost. Bike lanes are being create to make using a bike cheaper and workplaces have been encouraged to install showers, so people can cycle to work and wash when they get there.
Reintroduction of trams: Trams which are like buses that run on train tracks in the road have been reintroduced to South London. Trams were an early form of public transport common in most British cities. Unfortunately most were removed as car ownership increased. They are environmentally good because they run on electricity and don't release greenhouse gases.
Extension of the underground: New lines have been recently built or upgraded. The Jubilee Line was the latest big extension which goes from Central London out to East London (near the site of the 2012 Olympic Games).
Pedestrianisation: Some areas of London including the north side of Trafalgar Square, Leicester Square and much of Covent Garden have been pedestrianised to make it safer for people walking and to discourage car use. Pedestrianisation means removing cars from the roads and making them walking only areas.
Improved rail links (Crossrail and East London Overground and Docklands Light Railway): London is currently undertaking one of the biggest engineering projects in Europe by building a railway from east to west London under the city. This railway will decrease travel times and is called Crossrail. London is also improving or extending railways in the East of London near the site of the Olympics.
Bus lanes and priority traffic lights: The amount of buses have been increased and old ones renewed. Also some bus lanes have been created to avoid the traffic lights and also bus lanes are given priority at lights. This should hopefully make buses quicker than cars and encourage more people to use public transport.
Car sharing (pooling) and car sharing lanes: Websites have been created to encourage people to share cars who travel on similar routes. Also road lanes have also been dedicated to people with more than one person in them.
Working from home and Flextime: Improved technology has allowed more people to work from home and also flexitime has meant people can travel at different times reducing the traffic peaks. Flexitime is people have to work a set number of hours a week, but aren't given specific start and finish times. This allows people to start early or finish late, or do both and then earn days off.
Reurbanisation: This means the movement of people back in the centre of urban areas (near the CBD). By encouraging people back into the centre then commuter times and traffic jams should decrease.
Increased car tax and petrol duty. Possible carbon tax and car park tax: Already the government has increased petrol tax and increased car tax on big cars to encourage people to drive smaller cars. In the future it has been proposed to introduce further carbon taxes and possibly a tax on car parking spaces.
Park and ride: This is not used widely at the moment but will be used a lot during the Olympics. Car parks will be built on the edge of London next to train stations and bus routes. People will then park their cars on the edge and transfer to public transport to reduce traffic.
Integrated transport network: This is linking different forms of public transport with each other. For example every underground station will have a bus stop by it and every mainline train station will have an underground station under it. Departure and arrival times will also be coordinated so people can move from one form of transport to another.
Rush hour: The period of time when most people travel to work. This normally between 7-9 in the morning and 5-7 in the afternoon. Traffic is normally worst during these periods.
School run: This is parents driving their children from home to work and back again. The school run can cause significant traffic around schools at opening and closing times.
Urban Regeneration
Deindustrialisation: The process of factories closing down. This has happened in many MEDCs over the last 50 years and was largely caused by offshoring (industries moving overseas to cheaper locations).
Disinvestment: Companies and or people leaving an area and taking their investments with them.
Unemployment: When people don't have a job.
Counterurbanisation and Suburbanisation: The movement of people away from the CBD towards rural areas or towards the suburbs (the edge).
Reurbanisation: The movement of people back towards the centre of urban areas.
Decentralisation: The movement out of businesses and people away from the CBD and out to more peripheral locations (possibly in the suburbs or smaller cities in other parts of the country).
Regeneration: The improvement of areas through investment, rebranding (improving its image and possible its functions), advertising, etc. Regeneration may involve knocking down derelict buildings and building new ones.
Gentrification: When people move into an area and starting making improvements which slowly improves and regenerates an area.
UDC: UDC stands for urban development corporation - they are organisations aimed at improving urban areas. The UK government created UDCs to improve deprived and poor urban areas like the London Docklands. They made redevelopment a lot easier by reducing tax, relaxing planning controls (making building cheaper and quicker) and improving local transport and creating worker training schemes.
London Docklands Case Study
The Docklands is found in the East of London and used to be one of the world's most important docks (ports). It exported products made in the UK around the world to its Empire. However, with the advent of containerisation ships started to get a lot bigger and they became to big to sail up and down the River Thames. Also the UK lost its Empire so became less important globally. Many of the UK's factories also closed (deindustrialisation) and moved overseas (offshoring). The process of deindustrialisation and containerisation meant that the Docklands suffered a spiral of decline and became very deprived.
During the 1980's the British government decided that it needed to regenerate these poor areas and launched UDCs (organisations aimed at regenerating areas). London Docklands became one of the first in 1981. Since the UDC came into existence, physical, social and economic improvements have been made.
Physical (environmental): 200,000 trees planted, 760 hectares of derelict land reclaimed, 150 hectares of open space created and 17 conservation areas made.
Social: 22,000 new homes built, 10,000 council houses refurbished, shopping centres and sports centres have been built along with new colleges. About $160 million has also been spent on education, healthcare and job retraining.
Economic: Docklands light railways was built, over 135km of roads built, the city airport was opened and the underground extended. The number of businesses doubled and the number of jobs tripled. Major businesses like HSBC and Citigroup moved into the area.
On a slightly wider scale the Greenwich Peninsula was cleaned and the O2 arena built and nearby in Stratford the 2012 Olympic Games will take place.
Newcastle Case Study
Newcastle CBD has seen large scale regeneration in recent years in an attempt to encourage people back to the CBD. It has built some landmark buildings, improved transport links, improved public safety, built new shopping areas and marketed itself better.
Two landmark projects are the Baltic Centre and The Sage. The Baltic Centre is a new art gallery built on the Tyne River in a former flour mill. The Sage is a multipurpose arts centre also built on the banks of the Tyne.
Transport and ease of movement has been improved by pedestrianising large areas of the CBD, building the Millennium bridge across the Tyne and improving the integration of Newcastle's rail, metro and bus system.
The main shopping centre Eldon Square has seen its parking improved and its disabled access improved. It has also been expanded and now accommodates 140 shops. A new shopping area, Eldon Gardens has also been developed for smaller independent retailers.
Newcastle now also has more visual policing and better CCTV. It has also marketed itself better and even applied for the European city of culture. Newcastle United's promotion back to the Premiership has also increased visits to the city. St. James Park remains very close to the CBD.
Urbanisation in LEDCs
Informal Settlements: Houses and settlements that have been built by the residents themselves out of any temporary building materials they can find. Informal settlements can also be called squatter settlements, slum settlements or shanty towns.
Marginal Land: Land that no ones wants to build on. Marginal land might be on steep slopes, next to main roads or on floodplains Newly arrived migrants are often forced to build temporary settlements on marginal land.
Favela: An area of informal housing in Brazil.
Urban growth/sprawl: The increase in size of urban areas. Urban areas normally grow out into the rural-urban fringe or onto marginal land.
LEDC Land Use Model
The LEDC land use model has some similarities to Burgess and or Hoyt. The CBD is found in the centre of the urban area, just like Burgess and Hoyt. Factories are also built along major transport routes like Hoyt.
However, when it comes to housing, there are significant differences. The high quality housing tends to be located near the CBD and will be either apartments or old colonial houses. The richer people want to live near the centre because that is normally where the best entertainment is and the best jobs are. As well as the high quality apartments near the centre, richer neighbourhoods will also develop that have good quality housing and good entertainment. In El Salvador this might include areas like Escalon, Zona Rosa and Santa Elena.
Slightly further out you get poor, but permanent housing. On the edge though where in Burgess and also Hoyt you found a lot of nice housing you find poor informal settlements built on marginal land. The informal housing has been built by migrants moving from rural areas to urban areas.
Industry tends to be focused on the main transport routes (roads and railways). There will not be much high quality housing near industry because richer residents don't want to live near polluting factories. However, there will be more poorer housing and informal settlements because the people can't afford to live anywhere else and often work in the nearby factories.
Rural-Urban Migration
Rural-urban migration is the movement of people from the countryside towards the cities. Rural-urban migration is the many cause of urbanisation. It is caused by a combination of push and pull factors. Some of the main push and pull factors are listed below.
PUSH FACTORS FROM COUNTRYSIDE (RURAL AREAS)
PULL FACTORS TO CITIES (URBAN AREAS)
No jobs or poorly paid jobs
Mechanisation. Machines taking the jobs of people
Low prices for agricultural products
Poor schools and hospitals
Shortage of entertainment
Poor quality of housing
Drought and famine
Shortages of water, electricity and gas
Poor transport and communications
More jobs
Better education and medical care
Better transport and communications
More reliable supply of water, electricity and gas.
Better entertainment
More houses and better quality houses
In reality most people don't experience all the push factors they expect and most actually end up living in poverty in informal settlements on marginal land on the edge of the city. Rio de Janeiro has suffered many urban problems because of rural-urban migration and it is now trying to solve some of the before the Football World Cup in 2014 and the Olympics in 2016.
Rio de Janeiro Case Study
Rio de Janeiro is the second largest city in Brazil and it is located on the SE coast. It is famous for its football, carnival, beaches and mountains. However, it is also known for its favelas and high crime rates.
It is estimated that over 1 million people live in Rio's favelas. The favelas suffer from many problems including:
Landslides caused by the deforestation of the steep hills they are situated on
Risk of eviction. Most of the land they are built on is illegally occupied so they could be thrown of it at any time.
No proper electricity connections leading to illegal and dangerous connection to the city's electricity supply
Housing that is only made out of temporary material which is vulnerable to flooding, etc.
No clean water supply which can lead to diseases like typhoid.
Overcrowding (high population density) which allows diseases to spread quickly
No toilets, showers or proper sewer systems which can cause disease to spread and attract mosquitoes which cause diseases like malaria
No proper rubbish collections which can attract animals like rats
No proper schools and medical facilities
Shortage of entertainment and facilities for all ages
High unemployment
High crime rates, including gangs, drugs and murders
A number of schemes are now in place to try and help people living favelas.
Self-help schemes
This is a local government and resident partnership. Residents are given legal ownership of their property and houses are upgraded by materials provided by the local government. Houses are connected to the city's electricity supply and sewers built. Local labour is used which means the government doesn't have to pay anything, but also local residents are learning new skills. Legal ownership should also mean local residents are prepared to invest in their houses. Electricity and water should also mean that peoples health starts to improve.
ADVANTAGES TO LOCAL RESIDENTS
ADVANTAGES TO LOCAL GOVERNMENT
They get an improved house to live in
They gain legal ownership of their house and the land it is on
Health should improve with better water supply and sewers
They should have a safer more reliable electricity supply
Houses should be at less risk from landslides (better foundations and better drainage)
New skills will be learnt when they are carrying out improvements
Locals health should start to improve.
Local residents will now start paying taxes to the government
There should be less health problems that the government has to pay for
There should be a positive multiplier effect as local residents try to improve their local area
Hopefully crime rates will reduce as residents find work and care for their community
Residents have new skills so should be able to find work.
The labour is free, even the government may provide some of the materials
Better roads should mean policing and rubbish collections are easier
Site and Service Schemes
The local government provides land and builds new roads with electricity and water connections. Local residents are then given or sold plots of land that they can build their houses on. Some site and service schemes will also have the houses built which again given away or sold cheaply to low income families.
Favella Bairro Project
This scheme started in the 1990's with $300 million and was designed to help 60 of the poorest favelas. Houses were made legal and extended. Roads were built so rubbish collections could start, schools and medical facilities were improved and sports facilities upgraded. Local labour was used to reduce unemployment and teach new skills.
Barra de Tijuca
This was a new city built 20km outside Rio. Its aim was to reduce pressure on housing in Rio. By 2000, 140,000 people lived in the new city. It was a completely self-contained city with its own shops, schools, medical facilities, etc. However, the houses in the new city were only really accessible for the rich and now Barra de Tijuca even has its own favelas.
IGCSE Settlements and GCSE Settlements
Specification:
1.2 Settlement
Candidates should be able to:
• Describe the patterns of rural settlements – dispersed, linear, nucleated.
• Explain how physical factors (relief, soil, water supply) and other factors such as accessibility, agricultural land-use, influence the sites and patterns of rural settlements.
• Describe and explain the factors which may influence the size, growth and functions of rural and urban settlements.
• Describe and suggest reasons for the hierarchy of settlements and services.
• Describe and explain the land-use zones of towns and cities to include the Central Business District (CBD), residential areas, industrial areas, the provision of open spaces and transport routes. Differences in the patterns of urban structures in cities of LEDCs and MEDCs should be identified.
• Describe problems associated with the growth of urban areas such as congestion in the CBD, housing shortages, traffic congestion, squatter settlements. Suggested solutions to overcome these problems should be illustrated by reference to selected examples.
• Describe the effects of urbanisation on the environment – pollution (air, water, visual and noise), the results of urban sprawl on surrounding areas, the growth of out-of-town urban activities – shopping areas, sports facilities, etc.
Settlement: A place where people live. A settlement can range from one an isolated building to a capital city of over 20 million people (e.g. Mexico City).
Site: The actual location or place that a settlement is built.
Situation: The area surrounding the site of a settlement. For example you might talk about if the settlement is near a river, or near the coast or in a valley surrounded by mountains.
When discussing settlements, we will often divide them into rural and urban settlements. We also often talk about settlements found in MEDCs and LEDCs.
Urban: The built up area, any city with a population of 10,000 people or more.
Rural: Basically the countryside (everywhere outside urban areas). Rural areas maybe farmland, forest, desert or savanna depending on where you are in the world. Rural areas do contain small settlements of less than 10,000 people e.g. hamlets and villages.
MEDC: More economically developed country. Basically a richer country e.g. US, Japan or UK
LEDC: Less economically developed country. Basically a poorer country e.g. Honduras, Uganda or Bangladesh
There are many different types of settlement, but these can roughly be divided into rural and urban settlements.
Hamlet: A small group of houses, normally about 5 to 10. There is often no services in a hamlet.
Village: A settlement of up to 10,000 people. Villages will have some services in them like small shops, a primary school, a doctors surgery, bus routes.
City: A large town, in the UK a town becomes a city when it has a cathedral in it.
Capital City: The main administrative centre within a country and the home of the national government.
Primate City: The largest and most important city within a country. The primate city will often have double the population of the next most important city. Most of the time the primate city is also the capital city, but there are some famous exceptions e.g. New York, Sydney and Sao Paolo.
Conurbation: Two or more towns or cities that have joined to together e.g. Birmingham, Walsall, Dudley and Wolverhampton in England.
Megaopolis: A conurbation or a clustering of cities with a population of over 10 million people e.g. Tokyo.
Choosing the Location of a Settlement
When the sites of settlement were first chosen, settlers would mainly have looked for natural advantages. These may have included:
Water supply: Water is essential when building a settlement. You need water to drink, to wash, to water crops and to cook. Water also contains fish that can be eaten and it can be used as a transport route.
Fertile land: All settlements need food so it is important to build need fertile soil, where it is possible to grow crops. If a settlement grows a surplus of food then they might be able to trade with neighbouring settlements.
Flat land (relief): It is a lot easier to build a settlement on flat land than in mountains.
Defensive position: When sites for settlements were first chosen (hundreds or thousands of years ago), battles between settlements would have been common, therefore a good defensive location (on a small hill or surrounded by water) would have been very important.
Building materials: Most houses would have traditionally been made out of woods, reeds, etc. Therefore it would have been very important to have been located near a source of building materials.
Transport links: There wouldn't have been roads and railways when the sites of settlements were initially selected. However, access to rivers, the sea or valleys would have been very important. If the settlement was built next to a river, a site that allowed easy access across the river would have been chosen.
Fuel: Settlements would not have had electricity or gas so a location next to a reliable source of fuel would be essential. The fuel source would normally be wood, or possibly peat.
Weather: Sites with fairly stable weather will have been selected. You do not want some where too hot or too cold, too wet, too dry or too windy. To grow crops sun and rain would have been very important.
Trading Location: Settlements may have also been built for their access to trading routes. It would be very hard for one settlement to be totally self-sufficient so trade was essential. Coastal areas often make good locations to trade from.
Resources: It is useful being near resources like wood, coal, gold because you can use them to build things or trade with nearby settlements.
Settlement Patterns
Rural settlements can develop in many different ways giving them a unique shape (morphology). The five main settlement patterns that you need to be able to recognise.
CAUSES OF SETTLEMENT DISPERSION
CAUSES OF SETTLEMENT NUCLEATION
Settlement Growth (Functions)
Function: The job, purpose or use of a settlement. Large settlements will have more than one function and these functions may change over time. Functions may include:
Rural Areas: Rural areas tend to have a lot less functions than urban areas. The main purpose of settlements in rural areas is normally agriculture (farming) and possibly tourism. This is because rural areas have less people, poorer transport, poorer communication, less technology and the land is better used for other purposes i.e. agriculture.
Urban Areas: Urban areas tend to have a lot more functions ranging from shopping functions, to educational functions, to transport functions, to administrative functions and residential functions. The bigger the urban area, the more functions that it normally has.
Changing Functions
Settlements will grow if their functions are being successful and in demand. Alternatively if a settlements functions fall out of demand or if the resource their function relies on runs out, then the settlement may see economic and population decline.
With the birth of package holidays to the Mediterranean many British holiday resorts saw a rapid decline in the demand for their tourist functions (hotels, piers, etc.). Also many mining settlements in the UK saw a rapid decline when coal ran out or overseas coal became cheaper. However, other settlements like Dubai in the UAE saw rapid growth as it promoted itself as an all year holiday destination. Some settlements try and change their functions if one function declines. For example as Liverpool in the UK has seen a decline in its industry and port it has tried to promote its cultural, sporting, leisure and shopping functions.
Settlements can grow because of their function. San Salvador's most important function is probably business (commerce). San Salvador and its main function have both grown because of a number of human and physical factors. These include:
Physical Factors for the growth of San Salvador and its main Function (Business)
Human Factors for the growth of San Salvador and its main Function (Business)
Settlement Hierarchy and Services
Hierarchy: Placing things in an order of importance.
Sphere of Influence: The distance or area people travel from to access a service i.e. the area served by a settlement or service.
Services: Facilities that are offered to people e.g. supermarket, cinema, school or train station. Services have a threshold population, which helps explain why bigger settlements have more services.
Range: This usually refers to the number of different services e.g. a school, a post office, etc. It can also refer to the distance people travel to access a service or settlement.
Threshold Population: The minimum amount of people required for a service to be offered and remain open.
High Order Goods (Comparison): Goods that people buy less frequently. They tend to be more expensive and people will normally compare quality and price before purchasing e.g. a TV, car or holiday.
Low Order Goods (Convenience): Goods that people buy every day. They don't usually cost much money and people would not normally travel far to buy them e.g. bread and milk.
The hierarchy of a settlement normally depends on three variables:
Obviously these three variables are very much interconnected. For services to be offered there has to be a minimum threshold population. When services are then offered more people are attracted. As more people are attracted more services are offered and the sphere of influence increases.
As you move down the settlement hierarchy the number of settlements increase. For example you only get one capital city (near the top of the hierarchy) in each country, but you get thousands of isolated buildings (farms - near the bottom of the hierarchy) in every country.
Land Uses and Land Use Models
CBD: The Central Business District. This the area in the middle of urban areas where there tends to be a concentration of retail and commercial land uses.
Transition zone: The area between the CBD and the largely residential suburbs. Traditionally this used to be an area of industry, but as industry has relocated these areas are being regenerated into mixed land use areas including houses, shops and entertainment.
Suburbs: The ares near the edge of the urban area that has a concentration of residential land use. There will also be some recreational land use within the suburbs and possibly some retail and educational.
Rural-urban fringe: This is the boundary between the urban area and the rural area (countryside). This area is demand by multiple land users e.g. agriculture, recreational, residential, retail, industrial. The large demand can often lead to conflict.
Commuter belt or Commuter villages (dormitory villages): Areas of residential land use where people travel from to their work place. People might access services near their place of work so commuter villages are often devoid of any other land uses or services.
Greenfield Site: Land that has never been built on before, greenfield sites will often be used for agriculture. Many countries are trying to restrict the amount of building on greenfield sites and encouraging building on brownfield sites.
Brownfield Site: This is land that has been built on previously but has been left abandoned and often become derelict. Most commonly brownfield sites are former factories found in the transition zone.
Derelict: Land that has been abandoned (no longer used) and often become run down or vandalised. Derelict sites is a sign of disinvestment (companies and people leaving an area).
Greenbelt: Greenbelts are protected areas of land around large urban areas. They have been used by the UK government to try and protect greenfield sites and promote building on brownfield sites.
Housing Density: The number of houses per km2.
Urban Sprawl or Urban Growth: The spread or growth of an urban area into the rural-urban fringe.
Main Land Uses
Land Use Models
A model is a simplification of reality. Models only show generalisations so near area may be exactly the same as the model. You need to know about two land use models based on MEDCs.
The Burgess Model was developed in 1925 by the sociologist Ernest Burgess. He based it solely on the US city of Chicago. He noticed a distinctive commercial area in the centre of the city and called this the CBD. He then noticed an area of factories which he called the transition zone followed by steadily improving housing as you moved away from the transition zone.
The model is very simplistic, only based on one city and now largely out of date as periods of deindustrialisation and regeneration have changed many urban land use.
The Hoyt Model was developed in 1939 by the economist Homer Hoyt. Hoyt based his model on 142 North American cities. Like Burgess he noticed a largely commercial area in the centre of the urban areas (the CBD). However, unlike Burgess' circles he noticed the development of wedges. He noticed that industry often developed along major transport routes e.g. railways, canals and roads.
He then noticed that the poorer residential areas were focused near the industry while richer residential areas tended to grow further away from polluting industrial areas.
Again there are some limitations because Hoyt only looked at North American cities in a period before mass car ownership. Also like with Burgess' model many changes have since taken place in MEDC cities.
The Rural-Urban Fringe
Rural-urban fringe: The boundary between the urban area (towns and cities) and the rural area (countryside).
Because so many people want to work and live in the rural-urban fringe, different groups frequently come into conflict over how to use it. Groups that may come into conflict include:
For example farmers and industry will probably disagree over many things. Industry might want to build on farmers land, farmers maybe worried about pollution disturbing crops and animals and both might be worried about each others transport. You can complete the conflict matrix below to look for other possible conflicts.
Types of Residential Housing
Council Housing: This is government housing which is usually given to people that are unemployed and have a low income. The rent on council houses are lower than the rent on private property.
Detached Housing: A single house that is not attached to any other house. A detached house will normally have a garden and a drive. These types of houses are normally found in the suburbs.
Semi-Detached Housing: Two houses that are joined together. They will probably have individual gardens and drives. These types of houses are normally found in the suburbs.
Terraced Housing: A long line of attached houses. These are typical in old industrial cities of the UK. They are normally found in the transition zone area and they would have been housing for people working in the factories. They were very basic houses, often with no electricity and an outside toilet. Many have now been knocked down or improved.
Bungalow: This is a house with only one floor. They are very popular amongst old people who find it hard to use stairs. Bungalows can be detached or semi-detached. They are normally found in the suburbs.
Flats or Apartments: These are buildings with multiple levels. Normally a flat or apartment will only be on one floor within the block of flats or the apartment building.
Tenure: This means who owns the house. Houses can be owner occupied, which means the people living their own it, council houses which means the government own its, privately rented, which means a private landlord (owner) owns it, or owned by a private organisation (housing association) and rented privately.
Even though the UK population is fairly stable the demand for houses has increased. The reasons for this include:
Controlling Growth in the Rural-Urban Fringe
Because of urban sprawl and because the loss of greenfield sites is such a big problem, many suggestions have been given to solve the problem, including:
Space Invading - Guardian article
Dale Farm: Plot holders get detailed eviction schedules - BBC article
GREENFIELD SITES
BROWNFIELD SITES
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
Types of Housing In El Salvador
Within a city it possible to find very different housing very close together. Contrasts are often greatest in developing cities where there is a big financial gap between the rich and the poor. One example of a city with these contrasts is San Salvador, the capital of El Salvador. Here you have people living in informal housing living only hundreds of metres from people living in large luxury detached houses.
Santa Elena is an area of San Salvador. It is a wealthy area and is where the US Embassy is located. Below are characteristics of the houses and the area:
On the other hand just a few hundred metres down the road in between the Pan-American highway you find informal housing locally known as ''champas". The informal housing here is on marginal land, it is near a polluted river and squashed between the country's busiest road. The characteristics of the houses and area here is very different:
Changing Location of Retail Land Use
Traditionally most main shopping areas have been concentrated in the CBD. However, in recent decades there has been a trend of shopping areas moving to the rural-urban fringe. Below are some of the reasons why they have moved.
CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT (CBD)
RURAL-URBAN FRINGE
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES TO LOCAL RESIDENTS IN RURAL-URBAN FRINGE
DISADVANTAGES TO LOCAL RESIDENTS IN RURAL-URBAN FRINGE
MetroCentre (Gateshead) Case Study
The site of the shopping centre was chosen because it was relatively cheap (previously it was marshland), fairly flat, had room for future expansion and was a designated enterprise zone. This meant that planning controls were more relaxed and it was exempt from property tax.
MetroCentre has very good transport links. Most people arrive via car on the A1 and use any of the 10,000 car parking spaces. However, it is also possible to reach the shopping centre via bus and metro.
The shopping centre has over 300 shops and 40 restaurants. Other facilities include a 12 screen cinema, 18 lane bowling alley and 150 room hotel.
Although the MetroCentre has created numerous jobs and provided facilities for local people it has also be blamed for increased traffic, pollution and the decline of Newcastle CBD. Later we will look at how Newcastle is fighting back.
Urban Problems
Urbanisation: The increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas. Although this can be caused by natural increase (higher birth rates in urban areas than rural areas), it is more likely to happen because of rural-urban migration.
Urban growth or Sprawl: A growth in the size of the urban area. This normally happens because of building in the rural-urban fringe, although it may also include things like land reclamation.
Rapid urbanisation and urban growth can cause many problems in urban areas including:
Spiral of Decline
Often one urban problem can lead to many other urban problems. This is often called the spiral of decline or also the negative multiplier effect. For example the diagram to the right shows how deindustrialisation (closure of factories and movement overseas) led to unemployment. Once you have unemployment local residents have less money. They do not spend money in local shops or on local facilities. They also invest less in their houses. Local businesses start to close or move to new locations (disinvestment). The local government starts to collect less money in tax while having to pay more unemployment benefit.
As local shops and facilities either close or move elsewhere unemployment rises still further. Some people will start to move causing depopulation. This out migration leaves behind abandoned businesses and houses which are often vandalised and become derelict.
Remaining residents take less care of their houses and the local government has less money to spend on roads, schools and hospitals. Education levels fall and so does residents health leading to more sickness and days missed from work.
This decline can continue on indefinitely until some intervention, usually by the government trying to regenerate and improve and area. Later we will look at the London Docklands and how it is being regenerated after decades of decline.
Congestion (London Case Study)
Probably one of the most common problems is congestion. The problem of congestion is caused by multiple factors, including:
The problems caused by congestion can be divided into social, environmental and economic problems.
SOCIAL PROBLEMS CAUSED BY CONGESTION
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS CAUSED BY CONGESTION
ECONOMIC PROBLEMS CAUSED BY CONGESTION
- As car ownership increases so does the amount of pollutants released by cars. This can lead increased chest problems e.g. asthma.
- People travelling to work have to leave home earlier and arrive back later, therefore spending longer away from their families.
- More cars on the roads increases the frequency of accidents
- More traffic jams can increase the frequency of road rage.
Traffic pollution kills 5,000 a year in UK, says study - BBC articleIntegrated transport network: This is linking different forms of public transport with each other. For example every underground station will have a bus stop by it and every mainline train station will have an underground station under it. Departure and arrival times will also be coordinated so people can move from one form of transport to another.
Rush hour: The period of time when most people travel to work. This normally between 7-9 in the morning and 5-7 in the afternoon. Traffic is normally worst during these periods.
School run: This is parents driving their children from home to work and back again. The school run can cause significant traffic around schools at opening and closing times.
Urban Regeneration
Deindustrialisation: The process of factories closing down. This has happened in many MEDCs over the last 50 years and was largely caused by offshoring (industries moving overseas to cheaper locations).
Disinvestment: Companies and or people leaving an area and taking their investments with them.
Unemployment: When people don't have a job.
Counterurbanisation and Suburbanisation: The movement of people away from the CBD towards rural areas or towards the suburbs (the edge).
Reurbanisation: The movement of people back towards the centre of urban areas.
Decentralisation: The movement out of businesses and people away from the CBD and out to more peripheral locations (possibly in the suburbs or smaller cities in other parts of the country).
Regeneration: The improvement of areas through investment, rebranding (improving its image and possible its functions), advertising, etc. Regeneration may involve knocking down derelict buildings and building new ones.
Gentrification: When people move into an area and starting making improvements which slowly improves and regenerates an area.
UDC: UDC stands for urban development corporation - they are organisations aimed at improving urban areas. The UK government created UDCs to improve deprived and poor urban areas like the London Docklands. They made redevelopment a lot easier by reducing tax, relaxing planning controls (making building cheaper and quicker) and improving local transport and creating worker training schemes.
London Docklands Case Study
The Docklands is found in the East of London and used to be one of the world's most important docks (ports). It exported products made in the UK around the world to its Empire. However, with the advent of containerisation ships started to get a lot bigger and they became to big to sail up and down the River Thames. Also the UK lost its Empire so became less important globally. Many of the UK's factories also closed (deindustrialisation) and moved overseas (offshoring). The process of deindustrialisation and containerisation meant that the Docklands suffered a spiral of decline and became very deprived.
During the 1980's the British government decided that it needed to regenerate these poor areas and launched UDCs (organisations aimed at regenerating areas). London Docklands became one of the first in 1981. Since the UDC came into existence, physical, social and economic improvements have been made.
Physical (environmental): 200,000 trees planted, 760 hectares of derelict land reclaimed, 150 hectares of open space created and 17 conservation areas made.
Social: 22,000 new homes built, 10,000 council houses refurbished, shopping centres and sports centres have been built along with new colleges. About $160 million has also been spent on education, healthcare and job retraining.
Economic: Docklands light railways was built, over 135km of roads built, the city airport was opened and the underground extended. The number of businesses doubled and the number of jobs tripled. Major businesses like HSBC and Citigroup moved into the area.
On a slightly wider scale the Greenwich Peninsula was cleaned and the O2 arena built and nearby in Stratford the 2012 Olympic Games will take place.
Newcastle Case Study
Newcastle CBD has seen large scale regeneration in recent years in an attempt to encourage people back to the CBD. It has built some landmark buildings, improved transport links, improved public safety, built new shopping areas and marketed itself better.
Two landmark projects are the Baltic Centre and The Sage. The Baltic Centre is a new art gallery built on the Tyne River in a former flour mill. The Sage is a multipurpose arts centre also built on the banks of the Tyne.
Transport and ease of movement has been improved by pedestrianising large areas of the CBD, building the Millennium bridge across the Tyne and improving the integration of Newcastle's rail, metro and bus system.
The main shopping centre Eldon Square has seen its parking improved and its disabled access improved. It has also been expanded and now accommodates 140 shops. A new shopping area, Eldon Gardens has also been developed for smaller independent retailers.
Newcastle now also has more visual policing and better CCTV. It has also marketed itself better and even applied for the European city of culture. Newcastle United's promotion back to the Premiership has also increased visits to the city. St. James Park remains very close to the CBD.
Urbanisation in LEDCs
Informal Settlements: Houses and settlements that have been built by the residents themselves out of any temporary building materials they can find. Informal settlements can also be called squatter settlements, slum settlements or shanty towns.
Marginal Land: Land that no ones wants to build on. Marginal land might be on steep slopes, next to main roads or on floodplains Newly arrived migrants are often forced to build temporary settlements on marginal land.
Favela: An area of informal housing in Brazil.
Urban growth/sprawl: The increase in size of urban areas. Urban areas normally grow out into the rural-urban fringe or onto marginal land.
LEDC Land Use Model
The LEDC land use model has some similarities to Burgess and or Hoyt. The CBD is found in the centre of the urban area, just like Burgess and Hoyt. Factories are also built along major transport routes like Hoyt.
However, when it comes to housing, there are significant differences. The high quality housing tends to be located near the CBD and will be either apartments or old colonial houses. The richer people want to live near the centre because that is normally where the best entertainment is and the best jobs are. As well as the high quality apartments near the centre, richer neighbourhoods will also develop that have good quality housing and good entertainment. In El Salvador this might include areas like Escalon, Zona Rosa and Santa Elena.
Slightly further out you get poor, but permanent housing. On the edge though where in Burgess and also Hoyt you found a lot of nice housing you find poor informal settlements built on marginal land. The informal housing has been built by migrants moving from rural areas to urban areas.
Industry tends to be focused on the main transport routes (roads and railways). There will not be much high quality housing near industry because richer residents don't want to live near polluting factories. However, there will be more poorer housing and informal settlements because the people can't afford to live anywhere else and often work in the nearby factories.
Rural-Urban Migration
Rural-urban migration is the movement of people from the countryside towards the cities. Rural-urban migration is the many cause of urbanisation. It is caused by a combination of push and pull factors. Some of the main push and pull factors are listed below.
PUSH FACTORS FROM COUNTRYSIDE (RURAL AREAS)
PULL FACTORS TO CITIES (URBAN AREAS)
Rio de Janeiro Case Study
Rio de Janeiro is the second largest city in Brazil and it is located on the SE coast. It is famous for its football, carnival, beaches and mountains. However, it is also known for its favelas and high crime rates.
A number of schemes are now in place to try and help people living favelas.
Self-help schemes
This is a local government and resident partnership. Residents are given legal ownership of their property and houses are upgraded by materials provided by the local government. Houses are connected to the city's electricity supply and sewers built. Local labour is used which means the government doesn't have to pay anything, but also local residents are learning new skills. Legal ownership should also mean local residents are prepared to invest in their houses. Electricity and water should also mean that peoples health starts to improve.
ADVANTAGES TO LOCAL RESIDENTS
ADVANTAGES TO LOCAL GOVERNMENT
Site and Service Schemes
The local government provides land and builds new roads with electricity and water connections. Local residents are then given or sold plots of land that they can build their houses on. Some site and service schemes will also have the houses built which again given away or sold cheaply to low income families.
Favella Bairro Project
This scheme started in the 1990's with $300 million and was designed to help 60 of the poorest favelas. Houses were made legal and extended. Roads were built so rubbish collections could start, schools and medical facilities were improved and sports facilities upgraded. Local labour was used to reduce unemployment and teach new skills.
Barra de Tijuca
This was a new city built 20km outside Rio. Its aim was to reduce pressure on housing in Rio. By 2000, 140,000 people lived in the new city. It was a completely self-contained city with its own shops, schools, medical facilities, etc. However, the houses in the new city were only really accessible for the rich and now Barra de Tijuca even has its own favelas.