3.1 Agricultural systems
Candidates should be able to:
• Describe in general terms the main features of an agricultural system: inputs, processes and outputs.
• Describe the influence of natural and human inputs on the processes and outputs of the two agricultural systems listed in the syllabus (a large-scale system of commercial farming and smallscale subsistence farming). Studies should include natural inputs (relief, climate and soil) and human inputs (economic, social and sometimes political). Their combined influences on the scale of production, methods of organisation and the products of each system should be studied. Reference may be made to an example such as plantation agriculture or extensive commercial cereal farming or extensive livestock production, etc., to illustrate a large-scale system of commercial farming. Examples such as intensive subsistence rice cultivation or shifting cultivation, etc. could profitably illustrate a system of small-scale subsistence farming. Other illustrations might be selected rather than the above. In each case reference should be made to a detailed case study.
• Recognise the causes and effects of food shortages. Shortages of food may be related to natural problems such as soil exhaustion, drought, floods, tropical cyclones, pests, disease, etc. There should be an awareness of the effects of these natural problems on selected areas within LEDCs. Economic and political factors and their effects upon food shortages should be noted, for example low capital investment, poor distribution/transport difficulties, wars, etc. The effects of food shortages in
encouraging food aid and measures such as those of the ‘Green Revolution’ to produce more food should also be considered. Agriculture (farming): The production of crops and or livestock.
Aquaculture: The farming of aquatic (water based) plants and animals e.g. mussels, fish and seaweed.
Pastoral Farming: The rearing of animals.
Livestock: Animals that are domesticated and reared on a farm.
Arable Farming: The growing of crops.
Crops: Types of plants that are grown on a farm e.g. wheat, corn, rice and barley.
Mixed Farming: Farming that rears animals and cultivates (grows) crops.
Subsistence Farming: Farming that involves only rearing enough animals and/or growing enough crops to support immediate friends and family.
Sedentary Farming: Farming that takes places in a permanent location. The farm and the farmer stays in the same place every year.
Shifting Cultivation: Farming that moves from one location to another every couple of years.
Commercial Farming: Farming for the purpose of making a profit.
Extensive Farming: Where there are relatively few inputs (and possibly outputs) per hectare of land.
Intensive Farming: Where there are relatively high inputs and outputs per hecatre of land.
Normally a larger farm
Relatively few inputs per hectare
Relatively few workers per hectare
Relatively low yields per hectare
Normally a smaller farm
Relatively high inputs per hectare
Relatively high number of workers per hectare
Relatively high yields per hectare
Hectare: A hectare is an area of measurement equivalent to 10,000m2.
Yield: This is the amount of crops that are harvested i.e. the crop output.
Farming as a System
Just like industry, farming can also be looked at as a system with inputs, processes and outputs. In farming, physical (natural) and human impacts are normally separated.
Human Inputs: Things that are built or made by humans and added to a farm.
Physical Inputs: Natural things that are either found on a farm or are added to a farm.
Processes: The events that take place on a farm to turn inputs into outputs.
Outputs: Things that are produced on a farm and are often sold.
Labour (workers)
Machinery (tractors, combine harvesters, etc.)
Buildings (barns, silos)
Seed to grow crops
Animal feed
Fertlisers and pesticides
Calves, Chicks, piglets, etc. (small animals bought to rear and later sell)
Soil: If soil is fertile then arable farming is likely to take place, if it is less fertile and can only support grass then pastoral farming is likely to take place.
Precipitation: Water that helps water the crops.
Sun: Energy to help plants and animals to grow.
Alluvium: This is mineral and nutrient rich sediment (load) that is transported by rivers and deposited on floodplains in times of flood.
Flood water: Floods not only bring alluvium but also water to keep the ground moist.
Relief: If land is flat then it is easier for arable farming to take place. If land is hilly then pastoral farming is more likely to take place.
Drainage: It is important that fields are well drained so they are not permanently flooded. Apart from rice most crops and animals can't survive being permanently submerged.
Rearing: This is the caring for and support of animals to maturity.
Shearing: The removing of wool from animals, normally sheep.
Ploughing: Turning over the land and preparing it for planting seeds.
Fertilising: Adding chemicals to the soil to try and make it more fertile.
Weeding: Removing alien plants (plants other than the crops your are growing) from crop fields.
Irrigating: Watering the land.
Cultivating: To care for and grow crops.
Harvesting: The collection of crops at the end of the growing season.
Slaughtering: The killing of animals once they have reached maturity and are ready to sell.
Planting: Putting seeds into the ground.
Profits
Meat products (lamb, beef, chicken, pork)
Wool (normally from sheep)
Milk (normally from cows)
Waste e.g. animal excrement
Methane (mainly from cows)
Crops (corn, wheat, carrots, potatoes, etc.)
If a farmer has a really successful year, he maybe able to change his inputs the next year, by:
Buying more land
Buying better and newer equipment e.g. new tractor or combine harvester
Improving drainage and/or irrigation
Buying new varieties of seed, maybe GM crops
Building new buildings e.g. silos, barns or greenhouses
Buying more animals or better breeds
Alternatively the farmer may choose to have a more relaxing year and leave some of the land fallow or set it aside for environmental purposes. However, if a farmer has had a really bad year, he has to make decisions the next year. Does he invest in inputs and try and recoup loses or does he cut back on inputs. His choices may include:
He may sell some of his livestock
He may sell some of his land
He may diversify by opening a shop or a small B&B
He may try and farm more intensively by buying more fertilisers and pesticides
Silos: A large tall building designed to store and protect crops that have been harvested e.g. wheat and barley.
Barns: A large structure normally made from wood or corrugated steel to store machinery, harvested crops or to protect animals.
Humans can change some of the natural inputs found on farms. The changes are not always intentional, nor always caused by the farmer but may include:
Climate Change: It is now widely accepted that the main cause of climate change is the enhanced greenhouse effect that has been caused by humans. The climate is changing in many ways an altering natural inputs in many ways; some areas are getting warmer and drier, while other areas are getting wetter. What ever the change farmers will have to adapt to the changing inputs.
Acid Rain: Acid rain which is largely caused by human pollution can alter the pH of of soil and damage crops again forcing farmers to adapt their farming techniques.
Construction of a Dam: A construction of a nearby dam may improve the supply of water and allow new irrigation channels to be built, but it will also reduce flooding and therefore the amount of alluvium that is deposited on farm land. The reduced input of alluvium may force farmers to use more fertilisers.
Irrigation Channels: The construction of irrigation channels diverting more water onto farmland should make the ground more moist and easier to farm.
Drainage Ditches: Improved drainage may allow previously flooded land to be farmed and drain flood water away quicker.
Subsistence Farming - Ganges River, India and Bangladesh
The Ganges river flows eastwards from the Himalayas through northern India and into Bangladesh. The mouth of the Ganges is in the Bay of Bengal. Much of India and Bangladesh are very poor and a lot of the farming that takes place is subsistence farming (growing crops for immediate friends and family).
The area around the Ganges is moist (especially during the monsoon sea), warm (over 20 degrees centigrade most of the time) and fairly fertile (alluvium from flood events). Because of the natural inputs growing can take place most of the year and fairly intensively. However, growing rice is very labour intensive, rice paddies need to be constructed to hold water, irrigation channels need to be dug, seedlings planted, weeds removed and rice harvested. Because most of paddies and plots of land are small, very little equipment is used. As well as humans animals like water buffalo are used. Traditions means that plots of land are divided up after death which makes the farms less productive as they get smaller.
To try and improve yields in areas like the Ganges River the so called green revolution started in the late 1960's. The green revolution was an idea to introduce western plant varieties and farming techniques. The main change was the introduction of HYV crops which aimed to increase yields. The green revolution brought some successes and failures. These successes and failures are summarised below the climate information.
Climate Graph for Kolkata
Climate graphs are very useful for showing the average conditions of a city or region. Climate graphs show two variables; temperature in a line graph (often coloured red) and rainfall in a bar graph (normally coloured blue). When looking at climate graphs you always need to remember that they are average conditions and that months can be hotter or colder, drier or wetter than shown on the graph.
If we look at Kolkata's climate graph we can notice that it has a fairly small temperature range, about 8 degrees centigrade. In January the temperature is about 20 degrees centigrade rising to about 28 degrees centigrade in May. It then decreases gently reaching 20 degrees centigrade in December, except for the month of September which experiences a slight increase to about 27 degrees centigrade.
The rainfall appears to have two very distinct seasons. There is a lot of rain from May through to October and very little from November through to April. August is the month with peak rainfall reaching about 300mm, while December has the lowest with about 5mm.
Monsoon: This is the term normally used to describe South Asia's rainy season running from May to October.
Climate Graph for Kolkata, India
Successes of Green Revolution
Failures of Green Revolution
HYV did increase food production and made countries like India more self-sufficient
Food prices began to fall making them more affordable for the poor
More crops could be grown because of the shorter growing seasons
The yields were more reliable
Different crops were grown adding variety to local diet
There were surpluses so crops could then be traded commercially
Many farmers became wealthier
Large amounts of fertilisers and pesticides were needed that could then pollute water sources
The HYV were more susceptible to disease and drought
More water had to be diverted to growing the crops
Many poorer farmers could not afford to buy the more expensive HYV seed
Mechanisation has taken place leading to unemployment
Many natural varieties lost
Countries and farmers became dependent of foreign companies for the supply of seed.
Green Revolution: The introduction of modern western style farming techniques in LEDCs during the late 1960's and 1970's.
HYV: High yield varieties were developed to try and end food shortages by increasing yields. High yield varieties were first developed by cross pollinating different varieties of rice. Increasingly this is being done through genetic modification.
Labour Intensive: When work done is mainly done by humans and animals.
Tenure: This means who owns the land. In many societies on someones death the land is passed to the eldest son or divided amongst all the siblings (sons and possibly daughters). If the land is divided it means the plots of land get smaller and smaller with each generation and become increasingly difficult to farm effectively.
There are a number of ways that subsistence farmers can try and increase their yields and make money. If they increase their yields they can support their families, but also possibly have extra to sell and earn an income.
Use HYV or GM crops: These should increase the average yield, but the crops can be expensive to buy. Also intensive farming may degrade the quality of the soil overtime.
Buy more land: Not always possible but if a farmer has money (maybe a micro loan) then he could try and buy extra land.
Land reform: Changing traditional practices of dividing land into smaller and smaller profits can ensure that plots of land remain big enough to make farming sustainably.
Use fertlisers and pesticides: Use fertilisers so it is possible to grow more intensively and use pesticides to stop plants being killed by infestations.
Two crops: In some countries it is possible to grow two sets of crops each year (these might be the same crops or different crops). Even if climatic conditions are favourable by changing some of the inputs like irrigation and drainage then it may become possible.
Modern machinery: Using machinery might not always be possible of small plots of land, but it maybe possible if neighbouring farmers are cooperating. Machinery should make farming more efficient and may increase yields by ploughing better and harvesting quicker.
Irrigation: By watering crops more frequently it maybe possible to grow crops over a longer season, grow for two seasons or farm land that was previously too arid.
Cooperatives: By joining together with nearby farmers, farmers can share technology and possibly even land to try and increase production.
Terracing: By terracing on hillsides farmers maybe able to increase the size of their land. Terracing can also reduce the use of water.
Commercial Farming - Lynford Hall Farm, Cambridgeshire, UK
Commercial farming is growing agricultural products with the aim of making a profit. Lynford Hall Farm is an arable farm growing mainly wheat, potatoes and peas. The farm is located in Cambridgeshire which is the east of England. Cambridgeshire is a good location for farming because the land is flat, the soil is fertile and the temperature warm with plentiful rainfall. However, before farming started in Cambridgeshire the areas had to be drained because it was mainly wetland.
Lynford Hall farm is a large farm (570 hectares) and highly mechanised and computerised. Because of this it does not employ large numbers of workers. It could be considered an example of extensive farming because its inputs are small compared to its size, although its outputs are large.
The farm receives subsidies under the CAP. The subsidies that Lynford Hall Farm receives are designed to improve the EU's self sufficiency and protect the environment of the farm. Lynford Hall farm has also tried to diversify and save money. It has done this by selling some unused land and renting bungalows on the farm. It has also tried to build a wind turbine but that has met with local protests (NIMBY).
Mechanisation: Replacing humans with machine. Commercial farms will use more equipment like tractors and combine harvesters.
Diversification: This means increase the range of products. In farming this might be moving to mixed farming or adding new crops. However, it might also mean opening a bed and breakfast (small guesthouse), opening a coffee shop or farm shop or allowing educational visits.
Subsidies: Subsidies are financial help given to industries to make their production cheaper. The EU gives many of its farmers subsidies in order to protect tradition, to be self sufficient and to protect from foreign competition.
NIMBY: NIMBY stands for not in my back yard and it is the phenomenon of people approving of certain developments, but not wanting them to happen near where they live e.g. a wind turbine.
CAP: The Common Agricultural Policy is the EU's farming policy aimed at creating a single European market for farm products, become self sufficient, increase farm income and provide financial support. The CAP and EU subsidies have been criticised as protectionist and actually keeping the prices of farm products in the EU artificially high. If competition from outside was allowed then cheaper products could be imported.
Surpluses: This is when you have an excess of crops. A surplus for a subsistence farmer will mean that they can sell it at market and make a profit. A surplus for a commercial farmer may mean that they have too much to sell and may dump it as aid on an LEDC or simply throw it away.
Countries or individual farms may produce surpluses for a number of reasons including:
Subsidies: Financial help may allow a farmer to increase his inputs (land, machinery, irrigation, etc.) which will allow them to produce more crops.
Favourable natural inputs: Farms or countries may have ideal conditions to grow certain crops. The relief of the land, the fertility of the land and weather may all be perfect. Some years may also be better than others because of hot summers or absence of frost which makes certain years better than other creating surpluses.
Main sector of the economy: For countries where farming is the main sector of the economy then greater support and help will be put into the farming sector giving it a better chance to produce surpluses for sale.
Crop varieties: The use of new varieties like GM crops may increase yields and lead to surpluses.
Farming techniques/practices: New farming techniques like greater use of fertilisers, irrigation or crop rotation may increase yields.
Cash Crops - Coffee Farming in Vietnam
Vietnam is located in SE Asia. Although the Vietnamese economy is growing quickly, the majority of its citizens are still employed in the primary sector - mainly fishing and farming. Vietnam used to produce very little coffee, but after heavy promotion by the Vietnamese government it quickly turned into the world's second biggest producer after Brazil and actually the biggest producer of the cheaper robusta coffee (the other type of coffee is arabica which has a better taste and sells for more). Vietnam now has over 500,000 hectares dedicated to coffee plantations (most in the Central Highlands). Vietnam's main customers are the US and Germany.
Coffee production has brought jobs (estimated 500,000 accounting for 2% of national workforce) and income (in 2008 the export value was estimated to be over $2 billion) to Vietnam, but it has also caused many problems. Large areas of rainforest have been cleared (74,000 hectares only in Dac Lac Province), rural areas have become overcrowded, there are water shortages because of the all the water used to irrigate the coffee plants and the rapid growth of Vietnamese coffee exports caused the price of coffee to collapse. The large scale deforestation has also led to erosion of topsoil and loss of wildlife - Vietnam has many endangered animals including tigers, leopards, elephants and the Javan rhino (now believed to be extinct in Vietnam).
The graph to the right shows the world coffee prices over a ten year period. The graph clearly highlights how much prices can fluctuate by and demonstrates the risk of depending on one crop for income.
Cash crops: Crops that are normally grown in large plantations for the purpose of selling (making a profit). Cash crops are often grow in LEDCs and refer to things like bananas, tea, rubber, coffee beans, cocoa beans and palm oil, but they can also refer to corn, wheat, barley, etc. grown in MEDCs. Cash crops are sometimes referred to as commodities.
Monoculture: This is the growing of only one type of crop.
There are a number of problems that come from specialising in one crop (monoculture). The problems include:
Disease: If you only grow one crop, they can be wiped out if they are attacked by a disease or parasite. If you have a mixture of crops then other should survive if one is attacked.
Price Fluctuations: Because cash crops are traded globally, their prices can fluctuate with changes in supply and demand. Therefore if you are only growing one crop and the price collapses, then you lose the majority of your income.
Changing Demands: Again if you only grow one crop and the demand for that crop changes, then you potentially lose all of your income. For example if you grow only coffee and every suddenly stops drinking coffee because of the fear of caffeine then you could lose all of your income.
Natural disasters: Some crops are more vulnerable to natural disasters than others. For examples frost can destroy fruits, grains can be flooded by rain, bananas can be damaged by hurricanes. Therefore it is better to grow a variety of crops as to minimise the risk of damage.
Shifting Cultivation
Farming that involves clearing an area of land (deforestation) in order to farm. Shifting cultivation is usually small-scale subsistence farming. Once the land is cleared farming will take place. However, without its normal source of nutrients (rotting plant and animal matter) the soil soon becomes infertile and the farmers are forced to move onto a new location. Shifting cultivation is very common amongst indigenous groups in rainforests. Shifting cultivation is often criticised for causing problems including:
The killing or disturbance of flora and fauna.
The breaking of the nitrogen cycle, causing soil to lose its fertility very quickly
Breaking the stability of the soil and causing top soil erosion. Tree roots are very good at holding soil in place. If you remove these roots then water and wind erosion is more likely to happen.
More flash floods caused by the reduced interception, faster saturation of ground and increased surface run-off.
Silting of rivers caused by top soil being washed into rivers. The silt can then be washed into the seas blocking shipping channels or damaging reefs.
However, others would argue that shifting cultivation is normally carried out by indigenous groups who have been custodians of the rainforest for thousands of years and therefore should know how to care for it. Also it maintains a traditional way of life and is only small-scale as apposed to some of large cattle ranches that deforest large areas of rainforest.
Slash and burn farming: The process of cutting down areas of forest and then burning the stubble/roots in order to farm. Because land will become infertile very quickly, slash and burn farmers will move land every few years.
Nomadic: Nomadic simply means moving from place to place. Subsistence farmers who practice shifting cultivation (slash and burn farming) are nomadic because they move locations every few years.
GM Crops and Organic Farming
ORGANIC CROPS AND FARMING: Farming that uses natural varieties and natural farming techniques. There is only very limited use of fertlisers.
GM FARMING AND CROPS: Genetically modified crops are crops that have their genes altered to improve quality and/or quantity
ADVANTAGES
Because the crops take longer to ripen then they have better flavour.
Limited fertilisers or pesticides are used so there is minimal run-off into rivers or infiltration into groundwater stores.
There are also much less chemicals they maybe consumed by customers.
Organic crops often get a higher price when sold to consumers
Crops are all uniform in shape which may make storage and transport easier and/or appeal to customers.
The growing season is often shorter and can often be possible to have two or more crop seasons per year.
Crops maybe drought resistant so less water is used in their production.
It maybe possible GM crops in areas previously deemed unsuitable for farming.
DISADVANTAGES
The crops are not uniform i.e. they don't all look the same. Although this is natural it may put off some customers.
The crops maybe susceptible to diseases.
The crops may take longer to grow increasing the growing season.
The crops may need more water to grow,
Native/natural species may die as a result because they can't compete with the stronger GM crops.
The taste is often not as good because they have been grown quicker and often grown for appearance rather than taste.
It can lead to the development of super weeds to compete with the stronger GM crops
No one knows the long term affects on humans
Apart from organic farming, it is possible for farmers to be more environmentally sustainable by following a number of other practices including:
Plant hedges to act as wind break and create habitats for animals
Protect plant and animal species by building or protecting habitats e.g. leaving areas of woodland, meadow and lakes
Putting aside part of their land to grow wild/natural species (the CAP now offers some funding for farmers who do this)
Rotating crops and growing a greater variety of traditional native crops
Allowing animals to graze outdoor, rather than live in cages (free range animals and eggs)
Using traditional farming methods instead of relying on fertilisers and pesticides e.g. natural manure
Introducing more fallow periods to allow soil to rest
Open educational centres (city farms)
Famine
Famine: When the demand for food exceeds the supply of food leading to undernourishment. Prolonged undernourishment can damage people's health and eventually lead to starvation.
Drought: When the demand for water exceeds the supply of water causing water stress (water shortages).
Soil Degradation: A reduction in the quality of soil, making it harder to grow things.
Desertification: The process of soil becoming degraded and turning to desert.
Soil erosion: The removal of topsoil (topsoil is normally the most fertile layer) usually by wind and water. Soil is much more vulnerable to erosion when no vegetation is growing on it.
Human Causes of Famine
Physical Causes of Famine
Overpopulation: The growing population of the world means that demand for food is increasing. Unfortunately the supply of food is not always matching this demand. This is a problem that Malthus predicted.
Overgrazing: By trying to graze too many cattle on land, all the vegetation can be eaten. This reduces the integrity of the soil and can cause topsoil erosion and soil degradation.
Overcultivation: Trying to grow much on land can cause its degradation by using all the nutrients and not giving them time to recover. If the land becomes degraded then the yields decline.
Deforestation: By deforesting large areas of woodland, then again the integrity of the soil can be damaged as well as its source of nutrients. This can cause soil degradation and erosion, both leading to reduced yields.
Pollution: Farming and industrial pollution can both degrade the land and reduce yields of crops.
Conflict: When fighting takes place, it is often men that fight removing them from farming duties and therefore reducing yield. Also conflict can also make the land to dangerous to farm (mines) or degrade the soil because of chemical or biological warfare.
Corruption: Sometimes government officials or armies can use crops for themselves or their own needs leading the general population to go hungry.
Temperature: Temperatures that are too hot or too cold can both kill crops and animals. Most crops need steady and reliable temperatures.
Rainfall: If there is a shortage of rainfall then most crops will die or need extra irrigation. If water to irrigate is not available then crops will begin to die and yields reduce.
Natural Disasters: Natural disasters like hurricanes, tsunamis and volcanoes can destroy large areas of agricultural land. They can also kill or injure farmers. Both factors reduce yields.
Soil fertility: If soil is infertile because the bedrock contains few minerals or there is no flora and fauna to provide a humus layer then it can be hard to cultivate the land and lead to low yields.
General Problems Caused By Drought and Famine
Livestock deaths: When there is a shortage of water and food, animals are the first to go without, so animals will start to die. This makes the famine even worse because there is less meat, eggs, milk, etc.
Crop failure: Drought can cause crops to fail, but also when there is famine people often become too weak to work on the land so less crops are grown and the famine worsens.
Illness: When there is s shortage of food and water, people become weak from undernourishment (lack of food) and are more vulnerable to getting sick.
Death: Severe drought and famine will eventually lead to death. It is usually the very old, young or already sick that die first.
Conflict: If the resources of food and water are declining, fighting over these resources is likely to increase, especially between different tribes and countries.
Loss of Education: When drought happens people have to travel further to find food and water. They also become sicker. Both of these factors can impact students and teachers. Who it affects it means that people are either unable to go to school or have no one to teach them once they are at school.
Loss of income: If people are unable to work they are unable to work and earn money. Also many countries that suffer from famine have large primary sectors. Famine normally means that the primary sector (farming) has collapsed and people have nothing to sell to make money.
The Sahel - Famine and Desertification
The Sahel is an area of land south of the Sahara Desert. It stretches from Mauritania in the west through Mali, Niger, Chad and into Eritrea and Ethiopia. The areas in the Sahel have very high total fertility rates (the average number of children a woman has in her lifetime) causing the population to rise rapidly. This rising population is steadily increasing the demand for food. In the meantime the supply of food is also being affected because of land degradation caused by:
Deforestation
Overgrazing
Reduced rainfall
Increased temperatures
The combination of increased demand and reduced supply has meant that many areas in Sahel have suffered from famine (food shortages).
In Niger a lack of rainfall (rainfall varies between 2 and 85 cm in Niger, but most falls in a 2 month period) caused a 26% decline in crop yields in 2009. Daytime temperatures in Niger are normally over 30 degrees centigrade so evaporation rates are high. This has meant that about half of its population of 15 million people face potential food shortages in 2010. Niger is a poor landlocked country (GDP per capita is about $750 per capita) where over 50% of the population are involved in farming (subsistence farming). Increasing temperatures and less predictable rainfall combined with deforestation and desertification mean that Niger are likely to experience increasing problems in the future. Niger is also experiencing rapid population growth with total fertility of 7.4.
Crop Rotation and Fallow Periods: By using different crops and allowing the land to rest it gives nutrients and minerals chance to return to soil making it more fertile and hopefully increase yields over longer periods.
Desalination: Taking water from the sea and removing the salt to make it good for drinking and agricultural uses. If more water is available it is then possible to water arid areas of land and hopefully increase crop production.
Irrigation: This means watering the land. By irrigating more arid areas we should be able to increase agricultural output.
Reforestation and afforestation: By foresting areas of land it can ensure that the nitrogen cycle (nutrients) is maintained, it can increase the stability and integrity of the soil and it can form a wind break from erosion and finally prevent flash floods. All these factors should improve the quality of the soil and hopefully crop yields.
Fertlisers and Pesticides: Although overuse of fertilisers and pesticides can damage the soil and pollute nearby water courses, if they are used properly they should improve the amount of nutrients present in the soil.
GM Crops: Some people believe GM crops could drastically reduce famine by increasing yields by allowing crops to grow more quickly, grow bigger, be more drought and disease resistant.
Improved Distribution of Crops: It is argued that there is currently enough food to feed everyone but it is not distributed evenly. Governments, charities and organisations like the WFP (World Food Programme) can try and distribute food more evenly so no one goes hungry.
Population Policies: By reducing population growth, especially in areas with low agricultural output, we should be able to reduce shortages of food and therefore famine.
IGCSE and GCSE Agriculture
Specification:
3.1 Agricultural systems
Candidates should be able to:
• Describe in general terms the main features of an agricultural system: inputs, processes and outputs.
• Describe the influence of natural and human inputs on the processes and outputs of the two agricultural systems listed in the syllabus (a large-scale system of commercial farming and smallscale subsistence farming). Studies should include natural inputs (relief, climate and soil) and human inputs (economic, social and sometimes political). Their combined influences on the scale of production, methods of organisation and the products of each system should be studied. Reference may be made to an example such as plantation agriculture or extensive commercial cereal farming or extensive livestock production, etc., to illustrate a large-scale system of commercial farming. Examples such as intensive subsistence rice cultivation or shifting cultivation, etc. could profitably illustrate a system of small-scale subsistence farming. Other illustrations might be selected rather than the above. In each case reference should be made to a detailed case study.
• Recognise the causes and effects of food shortages. Shortages of food may be related to natural problems such as soil exhaustion, drought, floods, tropical cyclones, pests, disease, etc. There should be an awareness of the effects of these natural problems on selected areas within LEDCs. Economic and political factors and their effects upon food shortages should be noted, for example low capital investment, poor distribution/transport difficulties, wars, etc. The effects of food shortages in
encouraging food aid and measures such as those of the ‘Green Revolution’ to produce more food should also be considered.
Agriculture (farming): The production of crops and or livestock.
Aquaculture: The farming of aquatic (water based) plants and animals e.g. mussels, fish and seaweed.
Pastoral Farming: The rearing of animals.
Livestock: Animals that are domesticated and reared on a farm.
Arable Farming: The growing of crops.
Crops: Types of plants that are grown on a farm e.g. wheat, corn, rice and barley.
Mixed Farming: Farming that rears animals and cultivates (grows) crops.
Subsistence Farming: Farming that involves only rearing enough animals and/or growing enough crops to support immediate friends and family.
Sedentary Farming: Farming that takes places in a permanent location. The farm and the farmer stays in the same place every year.
Shifting Cultivation: Farming that moves from one location to another every couple of years.
Commercial Farming: Farming for the purpose of making a profit.
Yield: This is the amount of crops that are harvested i.e. the crop output.
Farming as a System
Just like industry, farming can also be looked at as a system with inputs, processes and outputs. In farming, physical (natural) and human impacts are normally separated.
Alternatively the farmer may choose to have a more relaxing year and leave some of the land fallow or set it aside for environmental purposes. However, if a farmer has had a really bad year, he has to make decisions the next year. Does he invest in inputs and try and recoup loses or does he cut back on inputs. His choices may include:
Silos: A large tall building designed to store and protect crops that have been harvested e.g. wheat and barley.
Barns: A large structure normally made from wood or corrugated steel to store machinery, harvested crops or to protect animals.
Humans can change some of the natural inputs found on farms. The changes are not always intentional, nor always caused by the farmer but may include:
Climate Change: It is now widely accepted that the main cause of climate change is the enhanced greenhouse effect that has been caused by humans. The climate is changing in many ways an altering natural inputs in many ways; some areas are getting warmer and drier, while other areas are getting wetter. What ever the change farmers will have to adapt to the changing inputs.
Acid Rain: Acid rain which is largely caused by human pollution can alter the pH of of soil and damage crops again forcing farmers to adapt their farming techniques.
Construction of a Dam: A construction of a nearby dam may improve the supply of water and allow new irrigation channels to be built, but it will also reduce flooding and therefore the amount of alluvium that is deposited on farm land. The reduced input of alluvium may force farmers to use more fertilisers.
Irrigation Channels: The construction of irrigation channels diverting more water onto farmland should make the ground more moist and easier to farm.
Drainage Ditches: Improved drainage may allow previously flooded land to be farmed and drain flood water away quicker.
Subsistence Farming - Ganges River, India and Bangladesh
The Ganges river flows eastwards from the Himalayas through northern India and into Bangladesh. The mouth of the Ganges is in the Bay of Bengal. Much of India and Bangladesh are very poor and a lot of the farming that takes place is subsistence farming (growing crops for immediate friends and family).
The area around the Ganges is moist (especially during the monsoon sea), warm (over 20 degrees centigrade most of the time) and fairly fertile (alluvium from flood events). Because of the natural inputs growing can take place most of the year and fairly intensively. However, growing rice is very labour intensive, rice paddies need to be constructed to hold water, irrigation channels need to be dug, seedlings planted, weeds removed and rice harvested. Because most of paddies and plots of land are small, very little equipment is used. As well as humans animals like water buffalo are used. Traditions means that plots of land are divided up after death which makes the farms less productive as they get smaller.
To try and improve yields in areas like the Ganges River the so called green revolution started in the late 1960's. The green revolution was an idea to introduce western plant varieties and farming techniques. The main change was the introduction of HYV crops which aimed to increase yields. The green revolution brought some successes and failures. These successes and failures are summarised below the climate information.
Climate Graph for Kolkata
Climate graphs are very useful for showing the average conditions of a city or region. Climate graphs show two variables; temperature in a line graph (often coloured red) and rainfall in a bar graph (normally coloured blue). When looking at climate graphs you always need to remember that they are average conditions and that months can be hotter or colder, drier or wetter than shown on the graph.If we look at Kolkata's climate graph we can notice that it has a fairly small temperature range, about 8 degrees centigrade. In January the temperature is about 20 degrees centigrade rising to about 28 degrees centigrade in May. It then decreases gently reaching 20 degrees centigrade in December, except for the month of September which experiences a slight increase to about 27 degrees centigrade.
The rainfall appears to have two very distinct seasons. There is a lot of rain from May through to October and very little from November through to April. August is the month with peak rainfall reaching about 300mm, while December has the lowest with about 5mm.
Monsoon: This is the term normally used to describe South Asia's rainy season running from May to October.
Successes of Green Revolution
Failures of Green Revolution
Green Revolution: The introduction of modern western style farming techniques in LEDCs during the late 1960's and 1970's.
HYV: High yield varieties were developed to try and end food shortages by increasing yields. High yield varieties were first developed by cross pollinating different varieties of rice. Increasingly this is being done through genetic modification.
Labour Intensive: When work done is mainly done by humans and animals.
Tenure: This means who owns the land. In many societies on someones death the land is passed to the eldest son or divided amongst all the siblings (sons and possibly daughters). If the land is divided it means the plots of land get smaller and smaller with each generation and become increasingly difficult to farm effectively.
There are a number of ways that subsistence farmers can try and increase their yields and make money. If they increase their yields they can support their families, but also possibly have extra to sell and earn an income.
Commercial Farming - Lynford Hall Farm, Cambridgeshire, UK
Commercial farming is growing agricultural products with the aim of making a profit. Lynford Hall Farm is an arable farm growing mainly wheat, potatoes and peas. The farm is located in Cambridgeshire which is the east of England. Cambridgeshire is a good location for farming because the land is flat, the soil is fertile and the temperature warm with plentiful rainfall. However, before farming started in Cambridgeshire the areas had to be drained because it was mainly wetland.
Lynford Hall farm is a large farm (570 hectares) and highly mechanised and computerised. Because of this it does not employ large numbers of workers. It could be considered an example of extensive farming because its inputs are small compared to its size, although its outputs are large.
The farm receives subsidies under the CAP. The subsidies that Lynford Hall Farm receives are designed to improve the EU's self sufficiency and protect the environment of the farm. Lynford Hall farm has also tried to diversify and save money. It has done this by selling some unused land and renting bungalows on the farm. It has also tried to build a wind turbine but that has met with local protests (NIMBY).
Diversification: This means increase the range of products. In farming this might be moving to mixed farming or adding new crops. However, it might also mean opening a bed and breakfast (small guesthouse), opening a coffee shop or farm shop or allowing educational visits.
Subsidies: Subsidies are financial help given to industries to make their production cheaper. The EU gives many of its farmers subsidies in order to protect tradition, to be self sufficient and to protect from foreign competition.
NIMBY: NIMBY stands for not in my back yard and it is the phenomenon of people approving of certain developments, but not wanting them to happen near where they live e.g. a wind turbine.
CAP: The Common Agricultural Policy is the EU's farming policy aimed at creating a single European market for farm products, become self sufficient, increase farm income and provide financial support. The CAP and EU subsidies have been criticised as protectionist and actually keeping the prices of farm products in the EU artificially high. If competition from outside was allowed then cheaper products could be imported.
Surpluses: This is when you have an excess of crops. A surplus for a subsistence farmer will mean that they can sell it at market and make a profit. A surplus for a commercial farmer may mean that they have too much to sell and may dump it as aid on an LEDC or simply throw it away.
Countries or individual farms may produce surpluses for a number of reasons including:
Cash Crops - Coffee Farming in Vietnam
Vietnam is located in SE Asia. Although the Vietnamese economy is growing quickly, the majority of its citizens are still employed in the primary sector - mainly fishing and farming. Vietnam used to produce very little coffee, but after heavy promotion by the Vietnamese government it quickly turned into the world's second biggest producer after Brazil and actually the biggest producer of the cheaper robusta coffee (the other type of coffee is arabica which has a better taste and sells for more). Vietnam now has over 500,000 hectares dedicated to coffee plantations (most in the Central Highlands). Vietnam's main customers are the US and Germany.
Coffee production has brought jobs (estimated 500,000 accounting for 2% of national workforce) and income (in 2008 the export value was estimated to be over $2 billion) to Vietnam, but it has also caused many problems. Large areas of rainforest have been cleared (74,000 hectares only in Dac Lac Province), rural areas have become overcrowded, there are water shortages because of the all the water used to irrigate the coffee plants and the rapid growth of Vietnamese coffee exports caused the price of coffee to collapse. The large scale deforestation has also led to erosion of topsoil and loss of wildlife - Vietnam has many endangered animals including tigers, leopards, elephants and the Javan rhino (now believed to be extinct in Vietnam).
The graph to the right shows the world coffee prices over a ten year period. The graph clearly highlights how much prices can fluctuate by and demonstrates the risk of depending on one crop for income.
Monoculture: This is the growing of only one type of crop.
There are a number of problems that come from specialising in one crop (monoculture). The problems include:
Shifting Cultivation
Farming that involves clearing an area of land (deforestation) in order to farm. Shifting cultivation is usually small-scale subsistence farming. Once the land is cleared farming will take place. However, without its normal source of nutrients (rotting plant and animal matter) the soil soon becomes infertile and the farmers are forced to move onto a new location. Shifting cultivation is very common amongst indigenous groups in rainforests. Shifting cultivation is often criticised for causing problems including:
However, others would argue that shifting cultivation is normally carried out by indigenous groups who have been custodians of the rainforest for thousands of years and therefore should know how to care for it. Also it maintains a traditional way of life and is only small-scale as apposed to some of large cattle ranches that deforest large areas of rainforest.
Nomadic: Nomadic simply means moving from place to place. Subsistence farmers who practice shifting cultivation (slash and burn farming) are nomadic because they move locations every few years.
GM Crops and Organic Farming
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
Famine
Famine: When the demand for food exceeds the supply of food leading to undernourishment. Prolonged undernourishment can damage people's health and eventually lead to starvation.
Drought: When the demand for water exceeds the supply of water causing water stress (water shortages).
Soil Degradation: A reduction in the quality of soil, making it harder to grow things.
Desertification: The process of soil becoming degraded and turning to desert.
Soil erosion: The removal of topsoil (topsoil is normally the most fertile layer) usually by wind and water. Soil is much more vulnerable to erosion when no vegetation is growing on it.
Human Causes of Famine
Physical Causes of Famine
General Problems Caused By Drought and Famine
Livestock deaths: When there is a shortage of water and food, animals are the first to go without, so animals will start to die. This makes the famine even worse because there is less meat, eggs, milk, etc.
Crop failure: Drought can cause crops to fail, but also when there is famine people often become too weak to work on the land so less crops are grown and the famine worsens.
Illness: When there is s shortage of food and water, people become weak from undernourishment (lack of food) and are more vulnerable to getting sick.
Death: Severe drought and famine will eventually lead to death. It is usually the very old, young or already sick that die first.
Conflict: If the resources of food and water are declining, fighting over these resources is likely to increase, especially between different tribes and countries.
Loss of Education: When drought happens people have to travel further to find food and water. They also become sicker. Both of these factors can impact students and teachers. Who it affects it means that people are either unable to go to school or have no one to teach them once they are at school.
Loss of income: If people are unable to work they are unable to work and earn money. Also many countries that suffer from famine have large primary sectors. Famine normally means that the primary sector (farming) has collapsed and people have nothing to sell to make money.
The Sahel - Famine and Desertification
The Sahel is an area of land south of the Sahara Desert. It stretches from Mauritania in the west through Mali, Niger, Chad and into Eritrea and Ethiopia. The areas in the Sahel have very high total fertility rates (the average number of children a woman has in her lifetime) causing the population to rise rapidly. This rising population is steadily increasing the demand for food. In the meantime the supply of food is also being affected because of land degradation caused by:
The combination of increased demand and reduced supply has meant that many areas in Sahel have suffered from famine (food shortages).
In Niger a lack of rainfall (rainfall varies between 2 and 85 cm in Niger, but most falls in a 2 month period) caused a 26% decline in crop yields in 2009. Daytime temperatures in Niger are normally over 30 degrees centigrade so evaporation rates are high. This has meant that about half of its population of 15 million people face potential food shortages in 2010. Niger is a poor landlocked country (GDP per capita is about $750 per capita) where over 50% of the population are involved in farming (subsistence farming). Increasing temperatures and less predictable rainfall combined with deforestation and desertification mean that Niger are likely to experience increasing problems in the future. Niger is also experiencing rapid population growth with total fertility of 7.4.
Strong Risk of 2010 Famine in Africa's Sahel - Reuters
Niger's Complicated Hunger Crisis - BBC article
Some Solutions to Famine and Land Degradation